Dr Rajiv Desai

Electric Vehicle, EV (electric car)

January 27, 2021 by Dr Rajiv Desai

Electric Vehicle, EV (electric car):  

_

The engine of a conventional internal combustion engine car is replaced by an Electric Motor and the fuel tank is replaced by the Battery Pack. Of all the components only the Battery Pack and Electric Motor alone contributes to about more than 50% of the total EV’s weight and the price.    

__

Section-1   

Prologue:

A car can be a wonderful thing. It can take you where you want, when you want — even when those places aren’t served by public transportation. In fact, much of modern life would be impossible without cars. They help us get to our jobs, schools, grocery stores or even just to the local shopping mall. Unfortunately, as wonderful as cars are, they also have some serious drawbacks. Two of these drawbacks are that they often cost a lot of money to maintain and they pollute the atmosphere with noxious gases.   

Few people would advocate giving up cars altogether, but is there a way we can have the power and convenience of an automobile without the pollution and expense caused by burning gasoline? Fortunately, there is. Many people think that the cars of the not-so-distant future will be powered not by gasoline, but by electricity. In fact, these electric cars — also known as EVs or electric vehicles — aren’t futuristic at all. In the early 1900s, the electric vehicle was reserved for dignitaries the likes of Thomas Edison, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and Clara Ford, the wife of Henry Ford. They chose this transportation for its quiet ride over the vibrating and polluting internal combustion engine. Although electric vehicles have been around since the first half of the 19th century, even today internal combustion engines still rule in most of cars. Out of 1.4 billion cars on road worldwide in 2020, only 7 million are electric vehicles. An electric vehicle (EV) uses electric motor powered by rechargeable battery for propulsion. Because it runs on electricity, the vehicle emits no exhaust.

Most of the vehicles are powered by internal combustion engines (ICEs) that burn fossil fuels to create the mechanical energy required to drive them forward. Gasoline or diesel goes in, tiny explosions power pistons and turn a crankshaft, the car moves forward, and carbon dioxide goes out. But not all of the energy trapped in the fuel actually gets used to move the vehicle along the road. In fact, for a typical gasoline-powered car, only about 14-16 percent of the energy stored in gasoline is converted to power at the wheels. Over 80 percent of the fuel’s energy is lost in the internal combustion engine. ICEs are very inefficient at converting the fuel’s chemical energy to mechanical energy, losing energy to friction, pumping air into and out of the engine and wasted heat. In comparison, electric vehicles convert between 59 and 62 percent of the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels.

Among many innovative technologies to decarbonize urban transport, electrification of the vehicle fleet has been viewed by many as an effective way to reduce carbon emissions, energy consumption, air pollution, and oil dependence. Electric vehicles (EVs) have the benefits of zero tailpipe emissions, low engine noise, and higher propulsion efficiency, and many governments have demonstrated their commitment to electromobility, particularly in populated urban areas with severe air quality problems. However, the energy consumption, CO2 emission and air pollution during the generation of the electricity used to power EVs cannot be neglected.

The EV is said to replace cars with the internal combustion engine by ca. 2040. The International Energy Agency (IEA) anticipates that there may be 300-400 million EVs on the road out of approximately 2 billion vehicles by 2040. However, certain drawbacks have hindered wider acceptance of EVs; they have shorter driving ranges than gasoline vehicles, are more expensive and take a long time to recharge. The future of electric vehicles depends largely on a combination of high government subsidies, extremely high gasoline prices, and dramatic improvements in battery technology. Proponents of government subsidies argue electric vehicles generate a range of short-term and long-term benefits such as reduced environmental impacts, innovation spillovers, and reduced reliance on imported oil. Several technological improvements will be needed to make the electric powertrain practical and economical. Even with oil at $100 a barrel, the price of the EV batteries would need to fall significantly to make battery powered electric vehicles competitive with conventional gasoline-fueled vehicles.   

_____

Note: 

This article focuses on electric car and the term electric vehicle is used synonymously with electric car, although the term electric vehicle also includes road (electric buses, trucks, bicycles, motorcycles and scooters) and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.     

______

______

Abbreviations and Synonyms:

Li-Ion = Lithium Ion

Na-NiCl2 = Molten Salt

Ni-MH = Nickel Metal Hydride

Li-S = Lithium Sulphur

E-REV = Extended-Range Electric Vehicles

AC = Alternating Current

Amp = Ampere-unit of electrical current

BEV = Battery Electric Vehicle = All-electrical vehicle

HEV = Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Hybrid = A vehicle with an electric motor & batteries plus an ICE

PHEV = Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

PEV = Plug-in Electric Vehicle = BEV + PHEV

FCEV: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle

CCS = Combined Charging System (a type of rapid charger)

CHAdeMO = An abbreviation of “CHArge de MOve” (a type of rapid charger)

DC = Direct Current

EV = Electric Vehicle

CV = Conventional or Combustion Vehicle 

ZEV = zero-emissions vehicle

EVSE = Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (chargers outlets and cables)

ICE = Internal Combustion Engine

kW = kilo Watt (unit of power)

kWh = kilo Watt hour (unit of energy)

PV = Photovoltaic Solar Panels

Regenerative Braking = Using electric motor as generator to slow vehicle & recharge batteries

REX = Range Extending

RFID = Radio Frequency ID (tech used by many charge cards)

SoC = State of Charge (the percentage on your battery)

SoH= State of Health of battery

V2G = Vehicle to Grid (sending energy from EV back to the grid)

UCS = Union of Concerned Scientists

HV = high voltage

LV = low voltage

BMS = battery management system

TMS = thermal management system

Gas = gasoline = petrol

IRENA = International Renewable Energy Agency

VRE = variable renewable energy

Tyre = Tire (For British motorists, the rubber wheel-covering is called a tyre – for the Americans it’s a tire) 

EV generally means BEV unless specifically stated.  

______

______

Section-2

Electric vehicle terminology:

Charging- EV owners need to recharge their EV batteries using electricity, instead of visiting a petrol station and refueling.

Charging point- Locations where an EV can be charged. These charging points can be at home, at work, in designated parking spots in public spaces and so on.

Top Up Charging- The practice of plugging in your electric vehicle whenever you park while out and about, making use of the time your car is not in use to add charge to your battery. This helps avoid range anxiety and means you will rarely find yourself waiting for your car to charge.

Home Charging- Plugging your electric car in to charge while it is parked at home, typically overnight. A dedicated home charging point is the best and safest way of doing this.

En-route Charging- En route charging typically requires high powered rapid chargers, that put >100 miles into your electric car in the time it takes to grab a coffee, a snack and use the facilities. This enables you to take long-distance trips in your electric car, but is not needed day-to-day.

ICEd- When a chargepoint is occupied by a vehicle with an internal combustion engine (ICE), preventing an EV from charging. A polite note left on their windscreen with your phone number is generally the best response.

Smart charging- A catch-all term for a series of functions that a Wi-Fi connected charge point can perform. Typically this refers to things like load balancing, energy monitoring and “managed charging”, i.e. shifting charging periods away from periods of high grid demand and/or low grid supply and to periods of low grid demand and/or high grid supply.

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)- The concept of using your electric car battery to release power back through the charger either for use in the local building or back into the grid at large during time of high grid demand.

Single-phase Power- Typically found in most homes and some businesses, this is what all standard 3 pin plug sockets provide. A single-phase AC electricity supply can power a dedicated charge point up to 7kW.

Three-phase Power- Often found on commercial and industrial sites, this provides three alternating currents and allows for 22kW AC charging. Significant three-phase power availability is also a prerequisite for DC rapid charger installation.

Reduction gear- This is the type of transmission on EVs. Because EVs can deliver their max power immediately and can sustain over 20,000 RPM, they only need one gear to deliver a great balance of acceleration and top speed. Once you lift off the accelerator, the reduction gear assists in slowing down the EV.

Regenerative braking- In a battery-powered vehicle, regenerative braking is when the otherwise wasted kinetic energy produced during braking is harvested and stored as chemical energy inside the battery. This energy can then be used as power. This helps EVs become even more efficient and can help extend their range.

EV Incentives- Usually provided by state or central governments to encourage buyers to purchase EVs. Incentives include subsidies in purchase price, tax credit, free parking, zero or reduced road tax among other exemptions.

Zero Emissions- An emission standard where EVs emit zero tailpipe pollutants. ICE powered cars release harmful gases like carbon monoxide ad nitrous oxide. A zero-emission vehicle is completely carbon neutral.

Range- The distance you can travel on pure electric power before the battery requires a recharge.

Range Anxiety- A term used to describe the fear of running out of battery power while driving an EV. This fear can be avoided by top-up charging wherever you park throughout the day and en-route charging on longer journeys. After becoming familiar with owning and driving an EV for a short time, many people find that range anxiety becomes range awareness and they no longer have a fear of running out of energy.

Aftermarket conversions- An aftermarket electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.

New energy vehicles- In China the term new energy vehicles (NEVs) refer to vehicles that are partially or fully powered by electricity, such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrids (PHEVs), and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCEVs). The Chinese government began implementation of its NEV program in 2009 to foster the development and introduction of new energy vehicles.  

NVH stands for Noise, Vibration and Harshness, and is basically a measure of how much unpleasant aural and tactile feedback the car delivers as you drive.

 

_____

Ah- This stands for ‘amp hours’ and will usually be presented with a number in front of it, e.g., 320 Ah. Amp-hours are often used to measure the charge of a battery. A charge of one Ah will supply one amp of current for one hour.

kWh- Kilowatt-hour. A unit of energy equivalent to the energy transferred in one hour by one thousand watts of power. Electric car batteries are typically measured in kilowatt hours. It is a unit of energy describing a battery’s capacity and how much energy it has to provide to the car’s electric motors. The larger the number of kilowatt-hours, the bigger the battery, the longer a car’s range. 1 kilowatt hour is typically 3-4 miles of range in a BEV. One kWh is one unit in your electricity bill. kWh divided by voltage gives you Ah for a given battery.

kWh mileage estimates the number of miles you get per kWh (e.g., 3.5 miles/kWh). It’s interesting to see the wide range of mileage you can get based on the size and weight of your car, where and how you drive it, and when you charge. Electric vehicles get worse mileage at faster speeds, largely due to the loss of regenerative braking and single gear transmission. The EPA has estimated one gallon of gas to be 33.7-kilowatt hours (kWh). The EV mileage is better than that of an equivalent gas-powered car for following reasons: (1) When grid has a good amount of clean energy on it, which gives the EV “free” miles; (2) The gas is being burned in a relatively efficient power plant, rather than in a relatively inefficient gas engine; (3) Electric-drive motors are much more efficient than combustion engines and drivetrains; and (4) The electric car regenerates power from braking, which a traditional gas-powered car cannot do. (Hybrids also do this.)  

Range per hour (RPH)- Miles of range per hour of charge.

MPGe- MPGe stands for “miles per gallon gasoline equivalent” and is supposed to represent how many miles an electric vehicle is estimated to be capable of traveling on the amount of energy contained in a gallon of gas, which is 33.7 kWh according to the EPA. A higher MPGe rating means a car is more efficient, which is better. But battery capacities are all over the place, so more MPGe doesn’t yet correlate with more range. An inefficient vehicle with a big battery may be more usable than one that’s efficient, but has a smaller battery.

Specific energy- In terms of calorific value per weight, a battery generates only 1 percent of what fossil fuel produces. One kilogram (1.4 liter, 0.37 gallons) of gasoline yields roughly 12kWh of energy, whereas a 1kg battery delivers about 150Wh. However, the electric motor is 90 percent efficient while a modern ICE comes in at about 15-20 percent.

____

Measure of electric range and efficiency:

Information about an electric car’s range is never complete without one of the following acronyms in close proximity: NEDC, WLTP, or EPA. These are the world’s three most predominantly used test protocols, and they say a lot about whether an electric car can actually achieve what its manufacturer claims in range. But different protocols give different results, so it’s important for you to know when an automaker is trying to play you for a fool by promoting the results of a test that puts its products in the most favorable light possible.

NEDC

NEDC, or “New European Driving Cycle,” is a test method last updated in 1997, meaning it predates the Toyota Prius. Even in its day, the NEDC protocol was accused of creating MPG figures you could never replicate in the real world. For electric vehicles, any range results from an NEDC-cycle test will be inflated and likely impossible to achieve out on the road without severe hypermiling. Thankfully, most of Europe and Asia abandoned this obsolete test method in favor of WLTP-protocol tests in 2017, though a few automakers still rate their EVs’ ranges with the flattering NEDC ruler.

WLTP

The Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Procedure, shortened to WLTP, is the test method in use today across most of Europe and Southeast Asia. Though it replaced the flawed and long-outdated NEDC system, WLTP still has its detractors, as its range ratings for EVs are still on the generous side. In theory, you can drive your EV as far as the WLTP says you can, but it’ll still be something of an inconvenience.

EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency)

Environmental Protection Agency is in charge of determining domestic fuel economy ratings, and that means estimating EV ranges also falls under its purview. Compared to the other two major testing protocols, the EPA is the most conservative with its results, estimating shorter ranges for EVs than you get from either WLTP or NEDC testing. This is in part due to highway driving, where EVs are less efficient, making up a larger proportion of North Americans’ driving, and thus a bigger chunk of the EPA test than in WLTP or NEDC tests. If you live in America, the EPA’s numbers are the ones to recognize. Demand EPA test results. If you’re elsewhere, abide by WLTP. But regardless of where you live, always look for test protocol behind the promised range, because how you reach a result is just as important as the result itself.

______

______

Section-3

Basic science vis-à-vis electric vehicle: 

_

Volt:

Think of the volt as a measurement of electrical “pressure,” like you’d find in a common garden hose. For a given diameter of hose, turning up the pressure moves more water. (Water is equivalent to power in this analogy.)

Ampere:

Continuing the garden hose analogy, think of the ampere (aka amp) as a measurement of electrical “flow,” with a larger-diameter hose—higher amperage—flowing more water (electrical power) at any given pressure (voltage).

Watt:

Named for James Watt, who also defined the term “horsepower,” the watt is a measure of the expenditure of energy over time. One watt is one joule per second, and is used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. One horsepower is equal to 745.7 watts.

Kilowatt:

The kilowatt is just 1,000 watts. Watts are small, so a bunch of them need to be grouped up to have meaning in the world of vehicle-level power: One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower.

Horsepower:

A unit originally invented to aid in the sales and marketing of steam engines, by measuring the output of the then-new machines in familiar, easy-to-understand terms. Like the watt, the horsepower is a measure of the delivery of energy over time.

Lithium-ion:

A blanket term covering many different formulations of battery. In the most basic terms, a lithium-ion battery is any battery that uses a lithium-based cathode (positive electrode). In the charging process, negatively charged electrons are supplied to the anode (negative electrode), drawing charged lithium particles (ions) through an electrolyte from the cathode to the anode, where they are stored. When the battery discharges, the ions move back to the lithium cathode, freeing the stored electrons to move, generating electricity. A separator prevents current from traveling within the battery.

Rotor:

The rotor is, as the name implies, the rotating bit in an electric motor. Think of it kind of like the crankshaft of a combustion engine; forces in the motor cause the rotor to spin, and that spinning is the motor’s output.

Stator:

The fixed parts surrounding the rotating part of an electric motor. The stator causes the rotor to spin by creating a constantly rotating magnetic field around its circumference. This rotating magnetic field interacts with the rotor’s magnetic field, causing it to spin.

Permanent-magnet synchronous motor:

The rotor’s magnetic field is supplied by permanent rare earth magnets, and it rotates in sync with the stator’s rotating magnetic field, hence the “synchronous” part of the name.

Induction asynchronous motor:

Instead of permanent magnets, induction motors use electrical current to induce a magnetic field in a cage of metal bars on the rotor, similar to how an electromagnet works. In order for that electromagnetic induction process to happen, there has to be some slight misalignment between the fields of the stator and the metal bars on the rotor. This misalignment is known as “slip,” and it’s also what makes the motor “asynchronous.”

CO2e:

Different energy sources produce different global warming emissions. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most prevalent of these emissions, but other air pollutants—such as methane—also produce global warming.  To make comparisons easier, we convert the global warming potential of all emissions to units of carbon dioxide equivalent, or CO2e—the amount of carbon dioxide required to produce an equivalent amount of warming. This lets us compare gasoline emissions with emissions from the electricity grid, even when the chemical nature of the air pollution is different. A higher number of CO2e emissions leads to more warming. Battery-electric vehicles provide zero-vehicle-emissions driving (for both carbon dioxide (CO2) and pollutant emissions), but the “upstream” CO2 can be substantial, for example in countries with dominant coal power generation. Electric grids must be considerably decarbonised (to 600 grams/ kWh or less) for EVs to have a CO2 advantage relative to similar sized hybrid internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles.

______

Torque:

Torque is the measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis. Force is what causes an object to accelerate in linear kinematics. Similarly, torque is what causes an angular acceleration. Hence, torque can be defined as the rotational equivalent of linear force. It’s important to note that torque is independent of movement or time; torque can be applied at zero rpm. To make sense of that, think about turning a doorknob until it stops and then holding it there. The force you used to turn it is torque, and so is the force you’re using to hold it, even though the doorknob is no longer rotating.

_

Torque comparison graph for an electric motor and gasoline engine of similar maximum power:  

Figure above shows rough indication of how torque varies with speed (engine rpm) for electric motors and gasoline engines of comparable power. Electric motors produce maximum torque right from the off, whereas gasoline engines need to pick up quite a bit of speed to deliver maximum torque. Most of the driving is done in the 2200 to 4800 rpm range with significant amount of torque. Lower rpms require torques as high as 125 Nm; urban vehicles have to operate in this region regularly as they face frequent start-stops.

_

In the case of electric cars, they produce their maximum torque output straight out of the bat. That means you have access to the entire torque output straight from standstill. It only starts decreasing as you progress towards the upper RPM range due to the phenomena of back EMF. Electric cars only consist of one intermediate part between the wheels and the motor, the transmission. Hence, they produce a really high torque output and experience negligible output loss at the same time. For a comparative figure, a Chevrolet Bolt electric city hatchback produces 360 Nm of torque which is as much as a Nissan 370Z V6-powered coupe!

______

Regenerative braking: 

When breaking in a traditional car, the kinetic energy caused is lost – mainly in the form of heat as the brake pads of the car heat up due to friction of the brake pad on the brake disc.  However, in an electric car the electric traction motor uses the vehicle’s momentum to recover energy that would otherwise be lost to the brake discs as heat. So in regenerative braking an electric motor functions as an electric generator to slow car & recharge batteries.

Regenerative braking allows the range of the EV to be extended; however, the efficiency of capturing this energy is reported to vary from 16% to 70% (Boretti, 2013). This simply means that 16 to 70% of the kinetic energy lost during the act of braking can be turned back into acceleration later.

______ 

Battery:

A battery is a device for storing chemical energy and converting that chemical energy into electricity. A battery is made up of one or more electrochemical cells, each of which consists of two half-cells or electrodes. One half-cell, called the negative electrode, has an overabundance of the tiny, negatively charged subatomic particles called electrons. The other, called the positive electrode, has a deficit of electrons. When the two halves are connected by a wire or an electrical cable, electrons will flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode. We call this flow of electrons electricity. The energy of these moving electrons can be harnessed to do work — running a motor, for instance. As electrons pass to the positive side, the flow gradually slows down and the voltage of the electricity produced by the battery drops. Eventually, when there are as many electrons on the positive side as on the negative side, the battery is considered ‘dead’ and is no longer capable of producing an electric flow.

The electrons are generated by chemical reactions, and there are many different chemical reactions that are used in commercially available batteries. For example, the familiar alkaline batteries commonly used in flashlights and television remote controls generate electricity through a chemical reaction involving zinc and manganese oxide. Most alkaline batteries are considered to be a disposable battery. Once they go dead, they’re useless and should be recycled. Automobile batteries, on the other hand, need to be rechargeable, so they don’t require constant replacement. In a rechargeable battery, electrical energy is used to reverse the negative and positive halves of the electrochemical cells, restarting the electron flow.

There are many types of battery chemistry available. Broadly batteries can be classified into three types.

Primary Batteries: These are non-rechargeable batteries. That is, it can convert chemical energy to electrical energy and not vice-versa. An example would be the Alkaline batteries (AA, AAA) use for toys and remote controls.

Secondary Batteries: These are the batteries in which we are interested in for electrical vehicles. It can convert chemical energy to electrical energy to power the EV and also it can convert electrical energy to chemical energy again during the charging process. These batteries are commonly used in mobile phones, EV’s and most of the other portable electronics.

Reserve Batteries: These are special type of batteries used in very unique application. As the name states the batteries are kept as reserve (standby) for most of its life time and hence have a very low self-discharge rate. Example would be Life vest batteries.

_____

Amp Hour and Kilowatt Hour:

Amp Hours are a measure of electric current and kilowatt-hour(kWh) is a unit of energy (it shows how much energy has been used), e.g., a 100 watt lightbulb uses 0.1 kilowatts each hour. An average home consumes 3,100 kWh of energy a year. An electric car consumes an average of 2,000 kWh of energy a year.

Consider the following…

A battery rated for 100 amp hours will provide 5 amps for 20 hours. If we have a 12 volt battery, we multiply 100 by 12 and determine that the battery will provide 1200 watt hours. To apply the metric ‘kilo’ prefix, we divide the result by 1000 and determine that the battery can supply the 1.2 KW hours.

There is something to keep in mind. The Amp Hour rating is a 20 Hour rating, therefore it is necessary to treat any kilowatt conversion you make as a 20 hour rating as well.

Limitations on Kilowatt Hours as Tool:

Like Amp Hours, the Kilowatt Hour specification is a typically 20 hour rating. Like Amp Hours, the Kilowatt Hours are subject to a phenomenon known as Peukert’s Law. What this phenomenon describes is the fact that any increase in the current draw on the battery will also result in a decrease on capacity. Similarly decreasing the current draw will result in an increase in battery capacity. More, the relationship is not linear. From a practical perspective, this means the Kilowatt Hour rating is difficult to extrapolate when value as the current draw increases.

Kilowatt Hours and Series Batteries Systems:

In some systems, 12 volt batteries will be connected in series (end to end) to create a higher voltage. For example, two 12 volt batteries in series will provide 24 Volts.

Suppose two 12 volt batteries rated at 100 Amp Hours were connected in series. While the voltage would increase to 24 Volts, the Amp Hours would remain the same. While amp hours remain the same, voltage does not. That means the power capacity has increased. In the case of our 100 Amp Hour series batteries, the Watt Hours have increased to 2.4 kWh. This particular characteristic can be a contributor to choosing 24 Volt Systems.

______

kW and kWh

The simplest definitions of kW and kWh are as follows:

kW = one thousand watts (and a watt is one joule of energy per second)

kWh = using a thousand watts for an hour (3,600,000 joules).

That may make kW and kWh look like they’re easily connected, but kW (kilowatts) and kWh (kilowatt hours) are not compatible units, so cannot be compared. Kilowatts are a unit of power, while kWh is a unit of energy. Think of it this way: kW defines how much energy a device uses or generates in a given amount of time. Meanwhile kWh defines how much energy that device actually used or generates. So, a 100-watt light bulb that is on for 10 hours needs 1 kWh (1,000 watt-hours). This is the same as ten 100-watt bulbs burning for one hour.

A kilowatt hour is a measure of energy used by an appliance if it were kept running for one hour. It’s not how many kilowatts are being used per hour! A kilowatt however, is a measure of instantaneous power. Appliances like televisions, computers, fridges, and electric car motors all have a watt or kilowatt rating. This is a measure of how much power they need to be continuously supplied with in order to run.

Let’s say you have an electric motor rated at 200 kilowatts (kW) at peak power output. If you ran that motor for 30 minutes you would use 100 kWh of energy — 200 multiplied by 0.5 (of an hour) equals 100 kWh.

Both kW and kWh are SI (metric) units and can be applied to any type of machine or energy storage system respectively. That means a gas engine or electric motor can both have a kW rating. Similarly since kWh is a measure of energy, you can define the capacity of a tank of liquid fuel or a battery in kWh.

In battery terms, a kWh rating defines how much energy the battery pack has available to provide to the electric motor and, thus, sort of, how far the car can go before needing to be recharged. In order to make batteries last longer (in terms of durability rather than range) they are typically not used to their full capacity. GM engineers have opted to only use half of the capacity of the Chevy Volt’s 16 kWh battery pack in order to help it last for 10 years / 150,000 miles. That means it will only provide 8 kWh of usable energy to get a 40-mile nominal electric-only range.

Still, since we don’t know the usable capacity of all the battery packs used in plug-in vehicles, we’ll use total capacity to compare some of the more popular EVs: 

Model	Battery Capacity	EV Range (official estimates)	Miles per kWh
Chevy Volt	16 kWh	40 miles	2.5
Ford Focus BEV	23 kWh	75 miles	3.2
Tesla Model S (base model)	42 kWh	160 miles	3.8
Nissan Leaf	24 kWh	100 miles	4.1
Tesla Roadster	53 kWh	244 miles	4.6
Citroën C-ZERO	16 kWh	80 miles	5
A123 PHEV Prius	5 kWh	30-40 miles (top speed, 35 mph)	6-8

Note that these battery packs are being used in very different types of vehicles, which accounts for some of the difference in miles per kWh.

Be mindful of these numbers since, the Volt only uses 50 percent of its capacity while the Tesla Roadster can use 100 percent of its 53 kWh. The Tesla battery pack is only expected to retain at best about 70 percent of capacity after 4-5 years while the Volt is being developed to still have 100 percent of its rated capacity after 10 years.

In battery terms, a kWh rating tells us how much energy the pack has to give to the electric motor. So, the 24 kWh pack in the Nissan Leaf could provide 24 kW for one hour, not taking into account what it’s actually being asked for by the electric motor or what connectors are in it to regulate the flow.

Batteries are in a unique position compared to many other devices. While they are primarily energy storage devices measured in kWh, they also have power ratings in kW. The power rating of a battery describes how fast it can release or absorb energy. Think of it in terms of a fuel tank. A high capacity, low power battery would be like a big tank with a pin-hole for the fuel to pour out of. A high power battery would have a larger opening for the fuel to come out of (or go into). Telsa’s Powerwall 2, for example, has a continuous output capacity of 5kW (higher rates possible for short periods) and a storage capacity of 13.2kWh (at the beginning of its warrantied life).

This brings us to electric motors, which are also given a kW rating. If you’re coming to EVs from standard gasoline vehicles, understanding a motor’s kW rating is simpler than understanding kWh because a kilowatt is equal to around 1.34 horsepower. Therefore, it is possible (and easy) to translate electric motor strength into hp, more commonly used to define liquid-powered engine power. A 100 kW motor puts out 134 hp. The higher the kW figure, the more oomph you’ll get at the expense of energy consumption.

The following list shows the power ratings of EVs motors that aren’t too different when compared with similar sized and performing ICE vehicles.

Nissan Leaf – 110kW

Hyundai Kona Electric – 150kW

Mercedes-Benz EQC – 300kW

Porsche Taycan Turbo S – 560kW

Tesla Model S Performance – 595kW

The electric propulsion system has better torque with the same horsepower than the ICE. This is reflected in excellent acceleration.

Brake horsepower = Traditionally ‘brake horsepower’ (bhp) has been used as the definitive measurement of engine power. It’s distinct from horsepower because it takes into account power loss due to friction – it’s measured by running an engine up to full revs, then letting it naturally slow down to a dead stop. Ford’s new Mustang Mach-e is more than 330bhp on tap and a 0-60mph time of just over five seconds.

_____

Cost Per Mile:

One reason it’s important to understand all of this is that it will help to determine how much it will cost you to drive your plug-in vehicle. Right now, knowing your mpg and the cost of gasoline will do the trick. Determining the cost per mile of an EV requires knowing your utility’s rates and how much juice your car will require to fill up. For example, a charger that uses two kW and takes eight hours draws 16 kWh of electricity. If your utility charges a dime per kWh, then to “fill up” costs you $1.60. Then, you take this number and divide it by how far you can go on to determine your cost per mile.

The Idaho National Lab has also provided a handy chart for this. It’s slightly out of date because it can only help us calculate costs for an EV that get 2, 3, or 4 miles per kWh, but if gives you can idea. Here’s how to read the chart:

The fuel cost of driving an electric vehicle depends on the cost of electricity per kilowatt-hour (kWh) and the energy efficiency of the vehicle. For example, to determine the energy cost per mile of an electric vehicle, select the location on the left axis (Electricity Cost per kWh) at 9 cents in the graph above. Draw a horizontal line to the right until you bisect the EV 3 mi/kWh line. Now draw a vertical line down until you bisect the bottom axis (Energy Cost per Mile). This tells you that the fuel for an electric vehicle with an energy efficiency of 3 miles per kWh costs about 3.0 cents per mile when electricity costs 9 cents per kWh.

_____ 

kW and Hydrogen Fuel Cells:

Just as with any other machine, kilowatts are also used to explain the output of a fuel cell stack. Unlike a battery, the stack does not store energy, it simply transforms it from chemical to electrical. Therefore the power rating describes the rate at which it can produce electrical energy. The power output range varies tremendously depending on what kind of fuel cell we’re talking about. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are often used in hydrogen cars, and generally range from 50 to 250 kW. Since fuel cells send their electricity to the electric motor, the kW rating of the motor defines how much of this energy is actually required at any given moment. And, instead of being limited by the kWh in the battery pack, the range of a hydrogen car is limited by the amount of fuel in the storage tank which can also be defined in terms of kWh (1 kg of compressed hydrogen gas has a capacity of about 39.7 kWh).

______

Where does the electric energy go in electric car? 

______

______ 

Section-4

Global activity to phase out Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles:

Internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) have experienced continuous development in manufacturing technology, materials science, motor performance, vehicle control, driver comfort and security for more than a century. Such ICEV evolution was accompanied by the creation of a huge network of roads, refuelling stations, service shops and replacement part manufacturers, dealers and vendors. No doubt, these fantastic industrial activities and business have had a central role in shaping the world and, in many aspects, the society as well. Today, the number of ICEV models and applications is astonishing, ranging from small personal transport cars to a hundred passenger buses, to heavy load and goods transportation trucks and heavy work caterpillars. Modern ICE vehicles encompass top comfort, excellent performance and advanced security, for relatively low prices and, needless to say, have become since the beginning the most attractive consumer products. However, despite approximately a century-long industry and academia struggle to improve ICE efficiency, this is, and will continue to be, incredibly low. About 15-20% of the energy produced in the ICE combustion reaction is converted into mechanical power. In other words, approximately 80% of the energy liberated by combustion is lost. In fact and worse than that, the wasted energy of thermal motors, as ICEs may be called, is transformed into motor and exhaust gases heat. The exhaust gases are a blend formed mostly of carbon dioxide (CO2) and, to a lower extent, nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons (CxHy), carbon monoxide (CO) and soot. Carbon dioxide is known to block the earth’s radiation emissions back into the outer space thus promoting global temperature rise – the so-called greenhouse effect. This, climate researchers say, is silently creating other global catastrophic changes, as for example, sea level rise. Air pollution in big cities is another serious problem caused by exhaust gases, which leads to respiratory system diseases, including lung cancer. Disturbing noise level is another issue related to big fleet of ICEVs in big cities. Yet, this brings about another headache for city administrators and authorities: the daily jamming, though this last nuisance might be alleviated only by mass transport systems (i.e., subways and trains).

Whether none of the above listed problems ever existed, yet a challenging situation had to be dealt with urgently: the finite amount of fossil fuel available for an ever-increasing world fleet. As petrol wells vanish, this commodity price skyrockets, also motivated by political tension around production areas in Middle East. On the other hand, renewable energy sources, like ethanol produced from sugarcane or maize crops, are an alternative solution being tried in some countries. In Brazil, for instance, sugarcane bio-fuel is an established option, with more than two decades on the road, with ICE automobiles prepared to run interchangeably on gasoline or ethanol automatically. Any driver could choose which fuel type to use at the refuelling station, much based on their prices. There is a criticism over this solution as regards to the demands on food availability and prices, once crop fields are used to produce bio-fuels instead of food. Greenhouse effect gas generation and air pollution problems are still present though to a somewhat lower extent. 

_

In light of the Paris Climate Agreement, pollution-related deaths and illness, and magnified devastation from extreme weather, global leaders are pushing to phase out fossil fuel-powered vehicles, which are major contributors to air pollution and climate change. China, Britain, France, India, and other nations have announced plans to phase out vehicles with internal combustion engines (ICE vehicles) and incentivize electric vehicle (EV) use at the national level. Meanwhile, some cities have passed measures to eliminate ICE vehicles within their boundaries by the end of this decade. 

_

Reasons for banning further sale of fossil fuel vehicles include: reducing health risks from pollution particulates, notably diesel PM10s and other emissions, notably nitrogen oxides; meeting national greenhouse gas, such as CO2, targets under international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement; or energy independence. The intent to ban vehicles powered by fossil fuels is attractive to governments as it offers a simpler compliance target, compared with a carbon tax or phase-out of fossil fuels.

_

The automotive industry is working to introduce electric vehicles to adapt to bans with varying success and it is seen by some in the industry as a possible source of money in a declining market. A 2020 study from Eindhoven University of Technology showed that the manufacturing emissions of batteries of new electric cars are much smaller than what was assumed in the 2017 IVL study (around 75 kg CO2/kwh) and that the lifespan of lithium batteries is also much longer than previously thought (at least 12 years with a mileage of 15,000 km annually). As such, they are more ecological than internal combustion cars powered by diesel or petrol.

_

There is some opposition to simply moving from fossil-fuel powered cars to electric cars, as they would still require a large proportion of urban land. On the other hand, there are many types of (electric) vehicles that take up little space, such as (cargo) bicycles and electric motorcycles and scooters. Making cycling and walking over short distances, especially in urban areas, more attractive and feasible with measures such as removing roads and parking spaces and improving cycling infrastructure and footpaths (including pavements), provides a partial alternative to replacing all fossil-fuelled vehicles by electric vehicles. Although there are as yet very few completely carfree cities (such as Venice), several are banning all cars in parts of the city, such as city centers.

_

Passenger cars and vans are responsible for about 15% of European Union (EU) carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and contribute to high concentrations of air pollutants in many European cities. The COVID-19 pandemic is likely to cause a temporary dip of emissions from passenger cars and vans reflecting a decrease in passenger transport volumes and less traffic. On a local scale, data for March 2020 show that specifically nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emissions dropped significantly in selected European cities affected by strict measures—from social constraints to the lockdown of an entire country—to curb the spread of COVID-19. Yet these restrictive measures are limited to the duration of the coronavirus outbreak, and without more longer-term instruments, emissions from transport are likely to bounce back quickly to previous levels. Early research points to air pollution possibly assisting the spread of COVID-19 and thereby increases the pressure to reduce pollutant emissions from road vehicles and improve people’s health. In addition, mitigating climate change remains a top priority to avoid.

_

Timeline of national targets for full ICE phase out or 100% ZEV (zero-emissions vehicle) car sales:

Selected countries	Year
Norway (100% ZEV sales)	2025
Denmark	2030
Iceland
Ireland
Netherlands (100% ZEV sales)
Sweden
United Kingdom	2040
France
Canada (100% ZEV sales)
Singapore
Sri Lanka (100% HEV or PEV stock)
Germany (100% ZEV sales)	2050
U.S. (only 10 ZEV states)
Japan (100% HEV/PHEV/ZEV sales)
Costa Rica (100% ZEV sales)

_

Auto Manufacturer Commitments & Corporate Responsibility: 

The imposition of emissions limits for vehicle manufacturers in the European Union — calculated on the total number of vehicles sold — has led the traditional car companies to begin switching to electric vehicles as the only way to avoid heavy fines. More and more companies are now considering their engine plants as assets that need to be disposed of urgently, disinvesting at an accelerated pace if emissions targets are to be met. An increasing number of local and national governments are signaling their intention to phase out combustion engine-powered vehicles altogether. In response, car manufacturers are increasingly adapting product strategies away from combustion engines and toward electric power. This comes at a time when combustion-engine vehicles still dominate new car registrations in the European Union. In 2019, gasoline cars accounted for 59% of new passenger car registrations, diesel cars for 31%, conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) for 5.9%, and cars running on ethanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and compressed natural gas (CNG) for 1.7%. The share of electric vehicles, including battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), was 3%.  

To meet future demand for EVs, auto manufacturers need to plan and gear up for the relevant changes to design and manufacturing processes. Normally, government calls for reduced vehicle emissions are met with resistance from the private sector. According to Winfried Hermann, transport minister for Stuttgart, “We say, clean up your technology, they say it is impossible.” Nevertheless, many automakers are now planning to sell most of their vehicle fleet in electric versions.

According to Volvo’s CEO, the manufacturer aims for 50 percent of sales to be fully electric by 2025. Other companies including BMW and Renault have committed to significant increases in EV production in the next two years and plan on a full transition in the near future. The PSA Group, which owns Peugeot and Citroen, stated its intentions to electrify 80 percent of its fleet for production by 2023, and Toyota is manufacturing its first fully electrified Prius to meet California’s updated vehicle standards for 2020. Toyota also announced it will be adding more than 10 EV models by the early 2020s, and has partnered with Panasonic to develop a new EV battery. Companies that have already produced fully electrified cars, such as Nissan, are setting the pace by providing more variety to make EVs appealing to consumers with diverse needs. Aston Martin, Jaguar, and Land Rover, producers of luxury cars, have also spoken publicly about their company goals to move toward electrifying vehicles. German-owned makers of Rolls-Royce and Mini Cooper vehicles plan to bring 25 electric models to market by 2025, in line with the goals that several European countries have targeted for the end of new ICE vehicle sales. Additionally, they hope to stay ahead of shifting market demands and the impending European target goals by increasing research and development spending to 7 billion euros. The largest auto manufacturer in Europe, Volkswagen, has pledged 20 billion euros for its electric car program, and its luxury brand Porsche, in collaboration with Audi, will release 20 electrified models by 2025.

Ford Motors and General Motors are also taking the extra step to significantly invest in production efforts. In January 2018, the chairman of Ford announced that the company would more than double their investment in EV production, up to $11 billion, and have 40 models ready for production by 2022, addressing a wide variety of consumers’ aesthetic and logistical needs. Sixteen of the 40 models will function as fully electric cars. In the case of General Motors, one of the largest automotive manufacturers in the world, company leadership aims to produce 18 battery electric cars and fuel cell-powered vehicles by 2023. The company has already opened its market for EVs in China, where General Motors reported selling more cars than it did in the United States in 2017. In the summer of 2017, “it started selling a two-seat EV there, for just $5,300.”  Pressure from regulators in China, Europe, and California to slash carbon emissions from fossil fuels is partially responsible for the shift in attitude at these major companies. Other influential forces include “Tesla Inc.’s success in creating electric sedans and SUVs that inspire would-be owners to line up outside showrooms and flood the company with orders.” Fiat-Chrysler claims to be “going after Tesla,” producing four electrified Maserati models by 2022.

______

______

Section-5

Energy sources and Electricity generation:  

_

Figure below shows projected worldwide energy sources:

Worldwide energy production is projected to grow at an annual rate of over 2% providing for an expanding population and industrial development, despite increasing efficiencies in consumption. Figure above shows that fuels, primarily petroleum oil is projected to grow at a similar rate, even in scenarios where the fuel remains at relatively high historical costs. 2030 World oil consumption is accordingly projected at 210 quadrillion Btu (118 million barrels annually), an increase of over 30% compared to 2004. The portion of oil used for transportation is growing and is projected to use 68% of liquid fuel energy over the period 2004 – 2030. Significant concerns have been raised about the security of oil supply and initiatives have been outlined to diversify energy in transportation including initiatives proposed by the US Administration and the Department of Energy.  These initiatives include the development of a vehicle that plugs-in and derives a great deal of its utility using energy from the electric power grid. Recent enthusiasm in PHEVs and E-REVs, in part, stems from these concerns. 

_

Figure below shows a network of the various energy sources, energy pathways, and possible on-vehicle energy storage media. Higher power motors, higher energy on-board electrical storage, and systems that allow for driving without a combustion engine enable vehicles that can use non-petroleum energy sources for transportation. Therefore increase in electrical content and magnitude onto the vehicle “electrification” is called for.

Figure above shows Energy sources, paths, on-vehicle storage and vehicle propulsion systems.

Diverse energy sources figure into the future of the world’s total energy bill. Yet today, automobiles rely almost exclusively on liquid fuels as the on-vehicle storage medium. Note that most other sources can be, and are already, used as part of the electric grid as shown figure below. 

Electric grid power is a natural candidate for transportation energy distribution with on-vehicle storage. Worldwide grid electricity is expected to approximately double in the next two decades, outstripping the growth in total energy consumption. Improved generating efficiency from new plants means that electrical generation will continue to use approximately 40% of the world energy sources.

If electric energy can be effectively stored and integrated to propel automobiles, the full range of energy sources could be tapped for future automotive needs. Furthermore, future improvements in the efficiency and environmental impact of electric power generation will be directly realized by the PHEVs and E-REVs on the road at that time.

Figure above shows Projected worldwide electric power capacity

_

Electrification: 

Several technical and commercial challenges are associated with charging, storing and making use of electric energy to propel automobiles. The term “electrification” means development and integration of systems and components that enable electric energy to be used for transportation. Challenges of electrification include providing automotive levels of reliability and durability, package density, acceptable noise, vibration and harshness, and automotive levels of cost in a set of new components and control algorithms.

There are three benefits to vehicle electrification: reduced petroleum consumption, reduced emissions, and energy diversification. Energy security comes from the ability to use multiple energy sources via electric pathways and on-vehicle storage, and a net reduction in fuel usage.

________

________

Section-6

History of electric vehicle:

The first practical electric cars were produced in the 1880s. In November 1881, Gustave Trouvé presented an electric car at the Exposition internationale d’Électricité de Paris. In 1884, over 20 years before the Ford Model T, Thomas Parker built a practical production electric car in Wolverhampton using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries. The Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 was designed by German inventor Andreas Flocken and is regarded as the first real electric car.

Electric cars were among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late 19th and early 20th century, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. The electric vehicle stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century. 

In 1897, electric cars found their first commercial use as taxis in Britain and the US. In London, Walter Bersey’s electric cabs were the first self-propelled vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse-drawn. In New York City, a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham, based on the design of the Electrobat II, were part of a project funded in part by the Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia. During the 20th century, the main manufacturers of electric vehicles in the US were Anthony Electric, Baker, Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn, Bailey Electric, Detroit Electric and others. Unlike gasoline-powered vehicles, the electric ones were less noisy, and did not require gear changes.

Six electric cars held the land speed record in the 19th century. The last of them was the rocket-shaped La Jamais Contente, driven by Camille Jenatzy, which broke the 100 km/h (62 mph) speed barrier by reaching a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph) on 29 April 1899.

Electric cars were popular until advances in internal combustion engine (ICE) cars (electric starters in particular) and mass production of cheaper petrol (gasoline) and diesel vehicles led to a decline. ICE cars’ much quicker refueling times and cheaper production costs made them more popular. However, a decisive moment was the introduction in 1912 of the electric starter motor that replaced other, often laborious, methods of starting the ICE, such as hand-cranking.

Despite waning popularity of electric cars, electric trains gained immense popularity due to their economies and fast speeds achievable. By the 20th century, electric rail transport became commonplace due to advances in the development of electric locomotives. Over time their general-purpose commercial use reduced to specialist roles, as platform trucks, forklift trucks, ambulances, tow tractors and urban delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British milk float; for most of the 20th century, the UK was the world’s largest user of electric road vehicles. Electrified trains were used for coal transport, as the motors did not use precious oxygen in the mines. Switzerland’s lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail network.

Starting in 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve urban air quality.

_

Modern electric cars:  

The emergence of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology led to the development of modern electric road vehicles. The MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor), invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, led to the development of the power MOSFET by Hitachi in 1969, and the single-chip microprocessor by Federico Faggin, Marcian Hoff, Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. The power MOSFET and the microcontroller, a type of single-chip microprocessor, led to significant advances in electric automobile technology. MOSFET power converters allowed operation at much higher switching frequencies, made it easier to drive, reduced power losses, and significantly reduced prices, while single-chip microcontrollers could manage all aspects of the drive control and had the capacity for battery management. Another important technology that enabled modern highway-capable electric cars is the lithium-ion battery, invented by John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino in the 1980s, which was responsible for the development of electric cars capable of long-distance travel.

In the early 1990s, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles. In response, automakers developed electric models, including the Chrysler TEVan, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck, GM EV1, and S10 EV pickup, Honda EV Plus hatchback, Nissan Altra EV miniwagon, and Toyota RAV4 EV. Both US Electricar and Solectria produced 3-phase AC Geo-bodied electric cars with the support of GM, Hughes, and Delco. These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U.S. market.

California electric automaker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 of what would become the Tesla Roadster, which was first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway legal all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge. The Mitsubishi i-MiEV, launched in 2009 in Japan, was the first highway legal series production electric car, and also the first all-electric car to sell more than 10,000 units (including the models badged in Europe as Citroën C-Zero and Peugeot iOn) in February 2011 as officially registered by Guinness World Records. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf, launched in 2010, surpassed the i MiEV as the all-time best selling all-electric car.

In July 2019, US-based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully electric Tesla Model S the title “ultimate car of the year”.

In January 2020, Nissan reported Leaf cumulative global sales totaling 450,000 units. In March 2020, the Tesla Model 3 became the world’s all-time best-selling electric car, with more than 500,000 units delivered.

In November 2020, GM announced it plans to spend more on electric car development over next 5 years than it spends on gas and diesel vehicles.

______

______

Section-7

Introduction to EV:

_

Mobility of persons and goods is a crucial component of the competitiveness of the economy; mobility is also an essential citizen right. Effective transportation systems are important for social prosperity, having significant impacts on economic growth, social development and the environment. The goal of any sustainable transport policy is to ensure that our transport systems meet society’s economic, social and environmental needs.

In 2006 the transport sector consumed 31% of the total final energy consumption (of which 82% is due to road transport) and was responsible for 25% of CO2 emissions (EU-27). In 2007 road transport constituted about 83% of passenger total transport demand. Road transport accounts for 71% of transport related CO2 emissions and passenger cars constitute 63% of these road transport related CO2 emissions. Currently, road transport is also totally dependent (>90%) on fuel oil making it very sensitive to foreseeable shortage of crude oil, besides largely contributing to air pollutants such as NOx, PM10 and volatile organic compounds.

It is estimated that more than 80% of the developed world population lives in an urban environment and therefore it is in this environment where a larger concentration of vehicles are found. As example there were about 230 million passenger vehicles in the EU-27 in 2007 and the new vehicle sales were nearly 16 million vehicles in that year. Consequently the urban population is very much at risk by directly suffering the impact of conventional vehicles because their closeness to the pollutant source. Air pollution is one of the important external costs of transport as it impacts on the health of the population (it is estimated to be 0.75% of the EU GDP). On the other hand, the large concentration of vehicles causes traffic congestions in metropolitan urban areas that can be considered a threat to economic competitiveness (a recent study on the subject showed that the external costs of road traffic congestion alone amount to about 1.25% of the EU GDP) and it also increases the inefficiency of an overcrowded transport infrastructure. 

Electric vehicles (EV) might offer a step change technology based on the much higher efficiency of electric motors compared to ICEs as well as the potential to decarbonize the energy chain used in transportation and in particular in the well to tank pathway (JRC et al., 2008, Thiel et al., 2010). This will also open the possibility to use alternative energy paths to secure mobility and making the road transport more independent from crude oil.

_  

An electric vehicle (EV), also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, is a vehicle which uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery, solar panels, fuel cells or an electric generator to convert fuel to electricity. Depending on the type of vehicle, motion may be provided by wheels or propellers driven by rotary motors, or in the case of tracked vehicles, by linear motors. Electric vehicles can include electric cars, electric trains, electric trucks, electric lorries, electric airplanes, electric boats, electric motorcycles and scooters, and electric spacecraft.

EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. Modern internal combustion engines have been the dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for almost 100 years, but electric power has remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types.

Commonly, the term EV is used to refer to an electric car. In the 21st century, EVs have seen a resurgence due to technological developments, and an increased focus on renewable energy and the potential reduction of transportation’s impact on climate change and other environmental issues. Project Drawdown describes electric vehicles as one of the 100 best contemporary solutions for addressing climate change.

An electric car is an alternative fuel automobile that uses electric motors and motor controllers for propulsion, in place of more common propulsion methods such as the internal combustion engine (ICE). Electricity can be used as a transportation fuel to power battery electric vehicles (EVs). EVs store electricity in an energy storage device, such as a battery. The electricity powers the vehicle’s wheels via an electric motor. EVs have limited energy storage capacity, which must be replenished by plugging into an electrical source.

_

Electric vehicles are different from fossil fuel-powered vehicles in that they can receive their power from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable sources such as tidal power, solar power, and wind power or any combination of those. No matter how it is generated, this energy is then transmitted to the vehicle through use of overhead lines, wireless energy transfer such as inductive charging, or a direct connection through an electrical cable. The electricity may then be stored onboard the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, supercapacitor, or fuel cell. Vehicles making use of engines working on the principle of combustion can usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of electric or hybrid electric vehicles is their ability to recover braking energy as electricity to be restored to the on-board battery (regenerative braking) or sent back to the grid (V2G). At the beginning of the 21st century, increased concern over the environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the specter of peak oil, led to renewed interest in an electric transportation infrastructure. As such, vehicles which can potentially be powered by renewable energy sources, such as hybrid electric vehicles or pure electric vehicles, are becoming more popular.

Electric cars have the potential of significantly reducing city pollution by having zero tail pipe emissions. Vehicle greenhouse gas savings depend on how the electricity is generated. With the U.S. energy mix using an electric car would result in a 30% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Given the current energy mixes in other countries, it has been predicted that such emissions would decrease by 40% in the UK, 19% in China, and as little as 1% in Germany.

Electric cars are commonly powered by on-board battery packs, and as such are battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Although electric cars often give good acceleration and have generally acceptable top speed, the poorer energy capacity of batteries compared to that of fossil fuels means that electric cars have relatively poor range between charges, and recharging can take significant lengths of time. However, for everyday use, rather than long journeys, electric cars are very practical forms of transportation and can be inexpensively recharged overnight. Other on-board energy storage methods that may give more range or faster recharge are areas of research.

Electric cars are expected to cause a revolution in the auto industry given advantages in city pollution, less dependence on foreign oil imports, and expected rise in gasoline prices.

_

Electric cars are a variety of electric vehicle (EV); the term “electric vehicle” refers to any vehicle that uses electric motors for propulsion, while “electric car” generally refers to road-going automobiles powered by electricity. While an electric car’s power source is not explicitly an on-board battery, electric cars with motors powered by other energy sources are generally referred to by a different name: an electric car powered by sunlight is a solar car, and an electric car powered by a gasoline generator is a form of hybrid car. Thus, an electric car that derives its power from an on-board battery pack is called a battery electric vehicle (BEV). Most often, the term “electric car” is used to refer to pure battery electric vehicles, such as the REVAi and GM EV1.

In an electric vehicle (EV), a battery or other energy storage device is used to store the electricity that powers the motor. EV batteries must be replenished by plugging in the vehicle to a power source. Some electric vehicles have onboard chargers; others plug into a charger located outside the vehicle. Both types, however, use electricity that comes from the power grid. Although electricity production may contribute to air pollution, EVs are considered zero-emission vehicles because their motors produce no exhaust or emissions.

Government incentives to increase adoption were first introduced in the late-2000s, including in the United States and the European Union, leading to a growing market for the vehicles in the 2010s. And increasing consumer interest and awareness and structural incentives, such as those being built into the green recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, is expected to greatly increase the electric vehicle market. A pre-COVID 2019 analysis, projected that Electric vehicles are expected to increase from 2% of global share in 2016 to 22% in 2030. Much of this market growth is expected in markets like North America and Europe; a 2020 literature review, suggested that growth in use of electric vehicles, especially electric personal vehicles, currently appears economically unlikely in developing economies.

____

Electric mobility:  

Electric mobility, according to the definition of the German government and the National Development Plan for Electric Mobility (NEP) comprises all street vehicles that are powered by an electric motor and primarily get their energy from the power grid – in other words: can be recharged externally.

This includes purely electric vehicles, vehicles with a combination of electric motor and a small combustion engine (range extended electric vehicles – REEV) and hybrid vehicles that can be recharge via the power grid (plug-in hybrid electric vehicles – PHEV). Furthermore, the National Development Plan for Electric Mobility does not just look at specific vehicles but at the overall system. Aside from electric cars, this so-called systemic approach also includes the energy supply side as well as the charging and traffic infrastructure in its definition of electric mobility, since those components are interconnected and together, they lead to sustainable mobility. One thing all definitions have in common is the narrow interpretation of the term electric vehicles, which is based on the idea of electricity as “fuel.” This was chosen with good reason. Because when you consider the entire energy chain, only electricity offers efficiency advantages and – as long as it comes from renewable sources – a significant reduction of CO2-emissions.

____

In recent times, electric vehicles (EV) are gaining popularity, and the reasons behind this are many. The most eminent one is their contribution in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In 2009, the transportation sector emitted 25% of the GHGs produced by energy related sectors. EVs, with enough penetration in the transportation sector, are expected to reduce that figure, but this is not the only reason bringing this century old and once dead concept back to life, this time as a commercially viable and available product. As a vehicle, an EV is quiet, easy to operate, and does not have the fuel costs associated with conventional vehicles. As an urban transport mode, it is highly useful. It does not use any stored energy or cause any emission while idling, is capable of frequent start-stop driving, provides the total torque from the startup, and does not require trips to the gas station. It does not contribute either to any of the smog making the city air highly polluted. The instant torque makes it highly preferable for motor sports. The quietness and low infrared signature makes it useful in military use as well. The power sector is going through a changing phase where renewable sources are gaining momentum. The next generation power grid, called ‘smart grid’ is also being developed. EVs are being considered a major contributor to this new power system comprised of renewable generating facilities and advanced grid systems. All these have led to a renewed interest and development in this mode of transport.

The idea to employ electric motors to drive a vehicle surfaced after the innovation of the motor itself. From 1897 to 1900, EVs became 28% of the total vehicles and were preferred over the internal combustion engine (ICE) ones. But the ICE types gained momentum afterwards, and with very low oil prices, they soon conquered the market, became much more mature and advanced, and EVs got lost into oblivion. A chance of resurrection appeared in the form of the EV1 concept from General Motors, which was launched in 1996, and quickly became very popular. Other leading carmakers, including Ford, Toyota, and Honda brought out their own EVs as well. Toyota’s highly successful Prius, the first commercial hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), was launched in Japan in 1997, with 18,000 units sold in the first year of production. Today, almost none of those twentieth century EVs exist; an exception can be Toyota Prius, still going strong in a better and evolved form. Now the market is dominated by Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Volt, and Tesla Model S; whereas the Chinese market is in the grip of BYD Auto Co., Ltd (Xi’an National Hi-tech Industrial Development Zone, Xi’an, China).

___

EVs can be front wheel drive, rear wheel drive, even all-wheel drive. Different configurations are applied depending on the application of the vehicle. The motor can also be placed inside the wheel of the vehicle which offers distinct advantages. This configuration is not commercially abundant now, and has scopes for more study to turn it into a viable product.

EV impacts the environment, power system, and economy alongside the transportation sector. It shows promises to reduce the GHG emissions as well as efficient and economical transport solutions. At the same time, it can cause serious problems in the power system including voltage instability, harmonics, and voltage sag, but these shortcomings may be short-lived if smart grid technologies are employed. There are prospects of research in the areas of V2G, smart metering, integration of Renewable Energy Systems, and system stability associated with EV penetration.

EVs employ different techniques to reduce energy loss and increase efficiency. Reducing the drag coefficient, weight reduction, regenerative braking, and intelligent energy management are some of these optimization techniques. Further research directions can be better aerodynamic body designs, new materials with less weight and desired strength, ways to generate and restore the lost energy.

Different control algorithms have been developed for driving assist, energy management, and charging. There is lots of room left for more research into charging and energy management algorithms. With increased EV penetration in the future, demands for efficient algorithms are bound to increase.

_

A battery electric vehicle (BEV), pure electric vehicle, only-electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is a type of electric vehicle (EV) that exclusively uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs, with no secondary source of propulsion (e.g., hydrogen fuel cell, internal combustion engine, etc.). BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion. They derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. BEVs include – but are not limited to – motorcycles, bicycles, scooters, skateboards, railcars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks, and cars.

In 2016 there were 210 million electric bikes worldwide used daily. Cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric car vehicles passed the one million unit milestone in September 2016. As of October 2020, the world’s top selling highway legal all-electric car in history is the Tesla Model 3, with an estimated 645,000 sales, followed by the Nissan Leaf with over 500,000 sales as of September 2020.

_

How does an Electric Car work in general? 

When pedal of the car is pressed, then:

-1. Controller takes and regulates electrical energy from batteries and inverters

-2. With the controller set, the inverter then sends a certain amount of electrical energy to the motor (according to the depth of pressure on the pedal)

-3. Electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (rotation)

-4. Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the transmission so the wheels turn and then the car moves.

Note: The working principle above is for battery electric vehicle (BEV) type

_______

Are electric cars automatic?

Most electric cars are automatic, and likely will be in the future. This is because an electric car doesn’t require a clutch due to its inability to stall like a petrol or diesel vehicle. Therefore, adding a clutch and various gears might not make much sense. However, some companies have been trying to produce electric vehicles that do still have a five- or six-speed gearbox, to maintain some form of normality for drivers who are used to manual vehicles.

When you drive a manual vehicle and you come to a complete stop, you must use both the clutch pedal and the brakes to prevent stalling the engine. However electric engines cannot stall in the same way, so clutch isn’t needed.

Electric car also doesn’t require gears. Electric vehicles don’t feature a multi-speed gearbox like conventional petrol or diesel vehicles. Instead, they have just one gear. In a combustion engine, the engine generates torque, which is used for acceleration, and power in a narrow band of engine speeds, or gears. In order to accelerate, the rpm must be kept relatively high to gain the necessary torque and power that’s required. The gears allow you to keep the power between a set amount so that you can gradually speed up and slow down while still having enough torque to do so. First gear can only get you up to a certain speed before the amount of rpm becomes too much and you need to move up to second gear. In contrast, electric motors generate 100 per cent of their torque at very low speeds (under 1,000 rpm). The more the rpms increase, the less torque is generated therefore it’s actually more beneficial to stick to a low rpm of around 2,000. It doesn’t mean that electric cars can’t have gears, but they aren’t necessary to make the car run.

Not only are electric cars missing a clutch and various gears, but the braking system is different too. Regenerative brakes are used where an electric motor functions as an electric generator to slow car & recharge batteries.

_

Do electric cars have a separate battery or a starter motor like in combustion-engine cars?

Gasoline and diesel engines must be started before use, typically using a starter motor powered by the starter battery. Electric vehicles do not have an auxiliary motor (a.k.a. a starter motor) of any shape or form. Electric motors start spinning by, essentially, flipping a switch that supplies electricity to the motor. For devices like household fans, you simply turn them on and the motor spins. Notice how the motor simply turns on, and there is no auxiliary motor required to start the motor. The device simply starts, and stops, repeatedly, as soon as you turn the switch on and off.

The starter motor in a gas engine itself proves the point. Every time we start a gas engine we worry whether it will actually start, but it’s not the starter motor we worry about. Compared to the starter motor, a gasoline engine is an unreliable finicky machine that might or might not start on any given day. Internal combustion engines are feedback systems, which, once started, rely on the inertia from each cycle to initiate the next cycle. Engines must continue running for the engine to be “on” and available to drive the vehicle. Electric motors do not operate the same way, and can be turned on and off with no delay or extra energy cost.

Because there is no starter motor for an electric car, the 12 volt battery has a different purpose than it does on a gasoline car. In a gasoline car those purposes are to aid starting the engine, to keep the engine running, and to operate exterior lights and stuff in the passenger cabin. On an electric car the 12-volt battery stores the power for the 12-volt system that runs components like the lights, entertainment system and the heating/cooling system. One key system is the set of switches and dashboard indicator lights involved with turning the electric car on and off. These components run on the 12 volt power system. Ensuring an electric car can always be turned requires a 12 volt battery. This battery is kept charged by a DC-DC converter which produces a 12-volt source from the main traction battery pack. There’s nothing magic about the 12-volt system which makes lead-acid batteries technically better. Since automakers obviously know how to design and build a high-voltage lithium ion pack for the traction battery, they could obviously do so for the accessory battery as well. A quick glance at the price of lithium ion versus lead-acid batteries though tells us why automakers still use 12-volt lead-acid batteries: cost.

We can estimate the cost difference between lithium ion and lead-acid 12-volt batteries with the ALM-12V7, manufactured by A123 Systems. This is a a plug-and-play replacement for the industry standard 12-volt, 7 amp-hour sealed lead-acid batteries that are used in a wide range of equipment. The cost for the ALM-12V7 is $129 and its weight is only 1.875 lbs, while the cost for 12-volt 7 amp-hour lead-acid batteries is in the $10-20 range, weighing about 4.5 lbs.

________

Transportation sector represents one of the main determinant factors of climatic changes, 23 % of the greenhouse gas from the atmosphere coming from this sector, being second after the industrial sector. Due to this reason, in 2015, “Paris declaration on ElectroMobility and Climate Change and Call to Action” has been adopted. This declaration has as a main objective reducing global warming with more than 2 degrees. This goal is achievable if electric vehicles represent 35 % from the total number of vehicles sold until 2030.

In order to reach this target, a decrease in the acquisition price of the electric vehicles is mandatory until it reaches a level closer to that of the internal combustion engine vehicles. Nowadays, the most expensive part of an electric vehicle is the battery, which represents 25 … 50 % of the price of the electric vehicle, depending of the technology used. A decrease of battery cost is anticipated by 2025, reaching a price of 225 Euros/kWh, which will determine a significate decrease in the acquisition price of the electric vehicles, helping them reach a value closer to the price of internal combustion engine vehicles.

______

EV deployment depends on four concurrent strategies to ensure maximum benefits:

-1. electrification of vehicles;

-2. provision of sufficient charging equipment;

-3. decarbonization of power generation; and

-4. EV integration with the grid.

______

Motivations for vehicle electrification:

-1. Energy Security: Reduce our dependency on foreign oil.

-2. Air Quality: Reduce air pollution and its effects on human health and the environment.

-3. Climate Change: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions to slow climate change.

-4. Economics: Reduce cost of driving, use local energy sources, and lead new technology innovation.

Electric vehicles are increasingly viewed as a way to help mitigate climate change. In a 2018 Consumer Reports survey, 80% of those who intend to make an EV their next vehicle purchase cited environmental concerns as their primary motivator.

But environmental impact is not the only factor contributing to electric vehicle adoption. Socio-political considerations arising from dependence on oil, which many countries import in large quantities, also play a role. Passenger vehicles accounted for about one-quarter of global oil demand in 2016, according to Columbia University’s Center on Global Energy Policy. Further, in 2017, the US imported about 19% of the petroleum it consumed, according to the US Department of Energy. Greater adoption of EVs could help change this dynamic and potentially give countries like the US more space for maneuver in regards to foreign policy — an attractive proposition for many decision makers.

Finally, there are the economic considerations. The shift to more sustainable transport could save governments, companies, and individuals up to $70T by 2050, according to an analysis by the International Energy Agency. The US Department of Labor estimates that electric vehicle manufacturing alone could result in a net employment gain of up to 350,000 US jobs by 2030.

As a result of these environmental, political, and economic incentives, federal and local governments in major markets around the world are introducing policies aimed at discouraging fuel-burning cars and boosting the use of EVs. In the US, for example, EV buyers can receive a tax credit worth $2,500-$7,500, while Germany’s federal government has allocated a fund worth around $670M for electric vehicle subsidies. On a local level, at least 15 major cities worldwide have announced plans to limit gas-powered cars by 2030 or sooner.

The social, environmental, and political considerations pushing EV adoption will likely grow stronger in the coming years.  

_

Historically, mobility and fossil fuels have been inextricably linked with electric vehicles being successful only in a few niche markets. However, over the last decade, a collection of circumstances have collaborated to create an opening for electric mobility to enter the mass market. Those forces include:

-1. Climatic change: The prospect of rapid global temperature increase has created the need for a reduction in the use of fossil fuels and the associated emissions.

-2. Advances in renewable energy: Over the last decade, advances in wind and solar electricity generation technologies have drastically reduced their cost and introduced the possibility of clean, low-carbon and inexpensive grids.

-3. Rapid urbanization: Economic development, especially in emerging economies, is creating a wave of urbanization as rural populations move to cities in search of employment. While urbanization is an important component of the process of economic development, it also stresses upon the energy and transport infrastructure leading to congestion and pollution. Electric vehicles (EVs) can improve that scenario by reducing local concentrations of pollutants in cities.

-4. Data capture and analysis: With the rise of GPS enabled smartphones and the associated universe of mobility applications, mobility has undergone a digital revolution. That digital revolution has created possibility of a greater utilization of existing transportation assets and infrastructure. For EVs, which rely on lower variable costs to offset relatively high fixed costs, this enhanced utilization is a critical element of achieving total costs of ownership compared to internal combustion vehicles.

-5. Battery chemistry: Advances in battery technology have led to higher energy densities, faster charging and reduced battery degradation from charging. Combined with the development of motors with higher rating and reliability, these improvements in battery chemistry have reduced costs and improved the performance and efficiency of electric vehicles.

-6. Energy security: The petrol, diesel and CNG needed to fuel an internal combustion engine (ICE) based mobility system requires an extensive costly supply chain that is prone to disruption from weather, geopolitical events and other factors. For example, India needs to import oil to cover over 80 percent of its transport fuel. That ratio is set to grow as a rapidly urbanizing population demands greater intra-city and inter-city mobility. As a result, developed economies such as EU, the USA and Japan as well as developing economies such as China and India have all included EVs in their policies to lower their carbon emissions while providing convenient and cost-effective mobility.

______

Ecosystem for Electric Vehicles:

-1. Market

Testing and certification

Vehicle Servicing

High capital cost and Financing

Electricity quality

Market for electricity storage

Consumer perceptions

Raw Materials for batteries

-2. Technical

Efficiencies of batteries

Driving range of EVs

Charging time

Safety

Environmental Impacts

-3. Policy

Taxation of vehicles and components

Subsidies on fossil fuels

Electricity tariff policies

-4. Infrastructure

Charging infrastructure

Smart Grids

Battery recycling

Dedicated lanes for E 2Wheelers

_____

Emissions and air quality:

It is often stated that electric vehicles are not ‘zero emissions’. This is true, instead they have zero tailpipe emissions. However there are two important points to consider.

-1. The emissions per km from driving electric is far less than driving petrol or diesel. This is true even when you consider the emissions from the power station.

-2. EVs remove emissions from the air, saving pedestrians and cyclists from breathing in the dangerous gases.

CO2:

The elimination of tailpipe emissions has a direct effect on our air quality. Even when emissions from electricity generation are considered, the CO2 emissions from EVs are less than those from the cleanest petrol engines.

Electric Vehicle = CO2 60g/km        

Petrol Engine = CO2 130g/km

Above figures are based on an average Irish grid emission level and equivalent petrol engine.

NOx and SOx:

Nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides are two of the harmful gases emitted through burning fossil fuels. ICE vehicles on our roads contribute to the NOx and SOx in our atmosphere. By driving an electric vehicle, you can reduce the amount of these harmful gases emitted.

Particulates:

Particulates are emitted by ICE’s, in particular diesel vehicles. These minute soot-like particles are bad for the human respiratory system. Electric vehicles do not pump these particulates into the air on our streets.

Noise pollution:

Environmental pollution includes noise. The relative quietness of an electric vehicle allows a reduction in the noise levels around us. Elimination of engine noise makes our environment a lot more peaceful. But just in case you are worried that EV’s are too quiet, for safety reasons EV’s do emit a sound when travelling at low speed.

_

Renewables and our electricity system:

The electricity system in fuelled by a variety of sources. Some of these sources are cleaner than others. The batteries in an EV can provide some of the solution in moving to renewable energy sources. By combining communications with existing smart energy technologies, we can match our energy consumption to the availability of renewable energy sources. The vehicle battery will then store the energy until we are ready to use it.

Charging at night means cleaner energy:

Overall energy consumption is lower during the night, and that is when wind generation tends to be more prominent in the energy mix. By charging at night, electric vehicles can help the consumption of greater amounts of renewables. This also acts as a buffer to stabilize our electricity system.

_

Many experts agree on the conclusion that EVs are defiantly greener than conventional ICE vehicles. It is because of the following reasons.

-1. Sustainability: Like EV’s are getting popular so are the renewable energy sector. We are slowly moving towards Wind and Solar for electricity generation and thus making the electricity generation process greener.

-2. Fuel Transportation cost: Many people do not consider this. The gasoline that you get in your gas station has been pumped, processed and transported from an oil-well elsewhere. All these process involve pollution at some level. On the other hand for EVs the electricity is transmitted from power plant to your house through wires and this set-up is already established.

-3. Energy Regeneration: Another that is only possible with EVs is electricity re-generation by regenerative braking. This does not add much but still it has a small impact on making the EVs greener.

______

______

Which Models and Types Are Available?

Electric vehicles come in all shapes and sizes, from small hatchbacks to luxury SUVs. Some are electric versions of familiar models; others are all-new vehicles engineered to strictly use electric power. There are two basic kinds of plug-ins: battery electric vehicles (BEVs) that run exclusively on electricity, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) that can run on electricity for a limited distance before switching to gas/electric hybrid mode. The EV culture is developing distinct philosophies, each satisfying a unique user group. This is visible with vehicle sizes and the associated batteries. The subcompact EV comes with a battery that has 12–18kWh, the mid-sized family sedan has a 22–32kWh pack, and the luxury models by Tesla stand alone with an oversized battery boasting 60–100kWh to provide extended driving range and achieve high performance.

Below is a list of models that are on sale now or are scheduled to be by the end of 2020.

-1. Hatchback

 BMW i3 (BEV)

Chevrolet Bolt (BEV)

Hyundai Ioniq (BEV, PHEV)

Mini Cooper SE (BEV)

Nissan Leaf (BEV)

Toyota Prius Prime (PHEV)

-2. Sedan

Honda Clarity (BEV, PHEV)

Tesla Model 3 (BEV)

Toyota Mirai (FCEV)

-3. Luxury

BMW 3 Series, 5 Series, and 7 Series (PHEV)

BMW i8 (PHEV)

Mercedes-Benz C350e and S550e (PHEV)

Lucid Air (BEV)

Polestar 2 (BEV)

Porsche Panamera 4 E-Hybrid (PHEV)

Porsche Taycan (BEV)

Tesla Model S (BEV)

-4. SUV/Minivan

Audi E-Tron, Q4 E-Tron, and E-Tron GT (BEV)

BMW X3 and X5 (PHEV)

Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid (PHEV)

Ford Mustang Mach-E (BEV)

Hyundai Kona Electric (BEV)

Hyundai Nexo (FCEV)

Kia Niro Electric (BEV, PHEV)

Jaguar I-Pace (BEV)

Land Rover Range Rover and Range Rover Sport (PHEV)

Mercedes-Benz EQC (BEV) and GLC 350e (PHEV)

Mini Countryman ALL 4 SE (PHEV)

Mitsubishi Outlander (PHEV)

Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid (PHEV)

Rivian R1S (BEV)

Tesla Model X and Model Y (BEV)

Toyota RAV4 Prime (PHEV)

Volvo XC60 T8 and XC90 T8 (PHEV)

 Volkswagen ID.4 (BEV)

-5. Pickup Truck

Rivian R1T (BEV)

______

Comparison of 2015 BMW i3 electric & BMW M135i gasoline  

Car	Type	Price	Annual fuel costs	BMW service package	0 – 100 kmph
BMW i3 (range extender)	4D: Hatchback	$69,990	$483	$850 (basic)	7.9 seconds
BMW M135i	4D: Hatchback	$70,344	$1784	$1,240 (basic)	4.9 seconds

_____

Cost of EV: 

Base prices start around $30,000 for the Hyundai Ioniq and Nissan Leaf. From there, prices run the gamut and span into six figures for a Tesla Model S and Model X. In some cases, those prices are thousands more than similarly sized gas-powered cars. But many electric cars are eligible for up to a $7,500 federal tax credit to help offset the extra cost. Additional city and state tax credits, rebates, or vouchers are available in California, Colorado, New York, Texas, and elsewhere; these can make the costs of electric cars more compelling and competitive with the price of non-EVs. Plus, consumers with a home solar system can really lower or even eliminate their energy costs.

_

Electric vehicles are energy and cost efficient:

Electric-drive motors are much more efficient than combustion engines and drivetrains. The efficiency of energy conversion from on-board storage to turning the wheels is nearly five times greater for electricity than gasoline, at approximately 76% and 16%, respectively. Electric vehicles also increase a vehicle’s efficiency by using regenerative braking technology to recover energy that would otherwise have been lost.

PHEVs and BEVs can be recharged from a charging station that uses standard 240-volt electrical power (the kind used for stoves and clothes dryers in most homes). Most can be recharged from a 110-volt service, although charging time will be significantly longer.

The cost of electricity per kilometer is much lower than that of gasoline: a BEV costs about 2 to 3 ¢/km (at 13 ¢/kWh), compared to a typical 4-cylinder gasoline vehicle at 7 to 8 ¢/km (at $1.00/L).

_

Estimated cost per km/mile of common EVs:

EV make	Battery	Range km (mi)	Energy cost/km (mi)
BMW i3 (2019)	42kWh	345km (115)	$0.033 ($0.052)
GM Spark	21kWh	120km  (75)	$0.035 ($0.056
Fiat 500e	24kWh	135km (85)	$0.036 ($0.058)
Honda Fit	20kWh	112km (70)	$0.036 ($0.058)
Nissan Leaf	30kWh	160km (100)	$0.038 ($0.06)
Mitsubishi MiEV	16kWh	85km (55)	$0.038 ($0.06)
Ford Focus	23kWh	110km (75)	$0.04 ($0.066)
Smart ED	16.5kWh	90km (55)	$0.04 ($0.066)
Mercedes B	28kWh	136km (85)	$0.04 ($0.066)
Tesla S 60	60kWh	275km (170)	$0.044 ($0.07)
Tesla S 85	90kWh	360km (225)	$0.048 ($0.076)
Tesla 3	75kw	496 (310)	$0.030 (0.048)

Energy cost only includes the consumed electricity at $0.20/kWh; service items are excluded.

_____

Will an Electric Vehicle add to your Electricity Bill?

The short answer is, yes. Any device, appliance or machine that draws electricity will add to your electric bill. Electric vehicles must be plugged-in and charged up regularly to run. The real question is how much EV ownership will affect your overall electricity usage. 

There are three primary variables that affect how much an electric vehicle will add to your electricity bill i.e., your vehicle, driving needs and Electricity Rate:

-1. The Vehicle – Just like other electric products, some EVs are more efficient than others. Instead of MPG, electric vehicle mileage is measured as kilowatt-hours per 100 miles (kWh/100 miles). Another measurement is MPGe, which stands for miles per gallon equivalent. MPGe is calculated by estimating how far an EV can go using the amount of kWh that is equivalent to one gallon of gasoline. The EPA has estimated one gallon of gas to be 33.7-kilowatt hours (kWh). Yet another way to gauge efficiency is to look at how many kWhs it takes to fully charge up the battery and then divide that by the number of miles per full charge (miles per kWh).

-2. Your Driving Needs – This one is pretty simple. The more miles you drive in a month, the higher your electricity use will be.

-3. KWh Rate – Last but not least, is your kWh rate. Electricity rates are generally more stable than gasoline, especially if you have a fixed rate, long-term electric plan. However, rates do vary significantly from city to city. And if you live in a deregulated energy area, rates can vary from one provider to the next.

One other variable that could be a consideration is whether your plan has a separate EV charging rate. Suppliers that offer these plans typically charge less for EV charging. The one caveat is you need to have an EV charging station installed to separate the electricity use. A charging station can easily cost $1,000 or more.

When you drive an electric vehicle that’s drawing a lot of electricity you’ll want to make sure you get the best rate possible. Another thing to look for these days is whether or not you have a time-of-use electric plan. With this type of plan, electricity costs fluctuate throughout the day. Therefore the cost will be dramatically different depending on whether you plug the EV in for charging during peak, mid-peak or off-peak hours.

Regardless of your kWh rate and plan, many EV drivers find that electric fuel is still cheaper than gas.

To limit the impact on your electric bill try to take advantage of free and low-cost public charging stations whenever possible. Many grocery stores, office complexes, government buildings, and schools now have at least a few in their parking lots. Bonus – you’ll also get a premium parking spot!     

______

Range of EV:

The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries used, and (as with all vehicles), the aerodynamics, weight and type of vehicle, performance requirements, and the weather.

The EPA range of production electric vehicles in 2017 ranged from 100 km (60 miles) in the Renault Twizy to 540 km (340 miles) in the Tesla Model S 100D. Real-world range tests conducted by What Car in early 2019 found that the highest real-world range was 417 km (259 miles) in the Hyundai Kona.

The majority of electric cars are fitted with a display of the expected range. This may take into account how the vehicle is being used and what the battery is powering. However, since factors can vary over the route, the estimate can vary from the actual range. The display allows the driver to make informed choices about driving speed and whether to stop at a charging point en route. Some roadside assistance organizations offer charge trucks to recharge electric cars in case of emergency.

_

Most all-electric cars can now go more than 200 miles on a full charge—much less than the typical 400- to 500-mile range for gasoline cars. The Environmental Protection Agency-rated range is quite accurate for EVs, though hilly terrain and running the air conditioning in hotter weather can also exact a toll. And driving in cold weather will shorten the range noticeably because of the power required to heat the cabin.

Driving an EV requires planning. But plug-in hybrids have a combined gasoline and electric range of 400 to 550 miles, and if you plan it right, you may never have to go to a gas station, except for during long trips.

Below are some examples of EVs with their EPA-rated range. For plug-in hybrids, a total range that combines electric and gasoline power is shown in parentheses.

Vehicle Make/Model	EPA-Rated Driving Range on Single Charge (Miles)
Audi E-Tron	222
Chevrolet Bolt	259
Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid	32 electric (520 total)
Hyundai Ioniq PHEV	29 electric (630 total)
Hyundai Kona EV	258
Kia Niro EV	239
Nissan Leaf Plus	226
Toyota Prius Prime	25 electric (640 total)
Tesla Model 3 Long Range	330
Tesla Model Y Long Range Dual Motor (AWD)	316

_

The makers of Nissan Leaf, BMW i3 and other EVs use the proven lithium-manganese (LMO)battery with a NMC blend, packaged in a prismatic cell. (NMC stands for nickel, manganese, cobalt.) Tesla uses NCA (nickel, cobalt, aluminum) in the 18650 cell that delivers an impressive specific energy of 3.4Ah per cell or 248Wh/kg. To protect the delicate Li-ion from over-loading at highway speed, Tesla over-sizes the pack by a magnitude of three to four fold compared to other EVs. The large 90kWh battery of the Tesla S Model (2015) provides an unparalleled driving range of 424km (265 miles), but the battery weighs 540kg (1,200 lb), and this increases the energy consumption to 238Wh/km (380Wh/mile), one of the highest among EVs.  In comparison, the BMW i3 is one of the lightest EVs and has a low energy consumption of 160Wh/km (260Wh/mile). The car uses an LMO/NMC battery that offers a moderate specific energy of 120Wh/kg but is very rugged. The mid-sized 22kWh pack provides a driving range of 130–160km (80–100 miles). To compensate for the shorter range, the i3 offers REX, an optional gasoline engine that is fitted on the back.

_ 

Current electric car infrastructure is not capable of completing a long trip in the same amount of time as a gasoline car due to more frequent and long recharge times. According to the documentary film Who Killed the Electric Car? the EV1 was “only” suitable for 90% of consumers.

Range issues can be solved by towing a generator on long trips, renting a gasoline car, in two car houses by using the other car, and by improvements to the electrical infrastructure. Charging stations are being created with 80% recharge in 30 minutes.

Replaceable standard battery packs is also an option. The battery would be charged at the energy station and the vehicle’s depleted battery would be replaced with the fully charged one, for a fee. Because of the weight (several hundred kilos), the vehicle and the energy station need to be adapted with a simple lift-and-slide-in mechanism to facilitate the replacement. It should not take longer time to switch batteries than filling up a gasoline car. A small car would use one battery pack, while a larger car might use several of the standardized battery packs.

_____

Charging (vide infra):

Much like filling a conventional car with gasoline at a gas station is a necessary aspect of ownership, understanding charging stations and the various options available are an integral part of owning an electric vehicle. In fact, a key difference between owning a gasoline-powered cars versus electric vehicle is this: unlike gasoline car owners, most EV owners complete over 80 percent of their charging at home, as it is the least expensive option and can supplement charges at public charging stations.

To charge an electric vehicle, you plug your car into a charger connected to the electric grid. Chargers are also known as electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), and come in three main categories.

Level 1 chargers use a 120 V AC plug and do not require the installation of additional equipment. These chargers deliver 2 to 5 miles of range per hour of charging and are most often used at home.

Level 2 chargers use a 240 V (for residential) or 208 V (for commercial) plug and require the additional charging equipment. These chargers deliver 10 to 60 miles of range per hour of charging and are used in homes and at public charging stations.

DC Fast Chargers use 480 V AC input and require highly specialized, high-powered equipment as well as special equipment in the vehicle itself. These chargers can deliver 60 to 100 miles of range in 20 minutes of charging. However, most PHEVs do not have this charging capability.

All-electric vehicles have standard plugs and receptacles that work with any Level 1 or Level 2 charger but because of the specialized equipment needed for DC Fast Chargers, there is not a standard plug at this time.

_

Electric cars are typically charged overnight from a charging station installed in the owner’s house, or from faster charging stations found in businesses and public areas.

Compared to fossil fuel vehicles, the need for charging using public infrastructure is diminished because of the opportunities for home charging; vehicles can be plugged in and begin each day with a full charge, assuming the home charging station can charge quickly enough. An overnight charge of 8 hours using a 120-volt AC outlet will provide around 65 km (40 miles) of range, while a 240-volt AC outlet will provide approximately 290 km (180 miles).

Charging an electric vehicle using public charging stations takes longer than refueling a fossil fuel vehicle. The speed at which a vehicle can recharge depends on the charging station’s charging speed and the vehicle’s own capacity to receive a charge. Connecting a vehicle that can accommodate very fast charging to a charging station with a very high rate of charge can refill the vehicle’s battery to 80% in 15 minutes. Vehicles and charging stations with slower charging speeds may take as long as an hour to refill a battery to 80%. As with a mobile phone, the final 20% takes longer because the systems slow down to fill the battery safely and avoid damaging it.

Some companies have been experimenting with battery swapping to substantially reduce the effective time to recharge.

Electric vehicle charging plugs are not yet universal throughout the world. Europe uses the CCS standard, while CHAdeMO is used in Japan, and a GB/T standard is used in China. The United States has no de facto standard, with a mix of CCS, Tesla Superchargers, and CHAdeMO charging stations. However vehicles using one type of plug are generally able to charge at other types of charging stations through the use of plug adapters.

_

Electric vehicles with battery type, range and charge time:

Model	Battery	Charge Times
Toyota Prius PHEV	4.4kWh Li-ion, 18km (11 miles) all-electric range	3h at 115VAC 15A; 1.5h at 230VAC 15A
Chevy Volt PHEV	16kWh, Li-manganese/NMC, liquid cooled, 181kg (400 lb), all-electric range 64km (40 miles)	10h at 115VAC, 15A; 4h at 230VAC, 15A
Mitsubishi iMiEV	16kWh; 88 cells, 4-cell modules; Li-ion; 109Wh/kg; 330V, range 128km (80 miles)	13h at 115VAC 15A; 7h at 230VAC 15A
Smart Fortwo ED	16.5kWh; 18650 Li-ion, driving range 136km (85 miles)	8h at 115VAC, 15A; 3.5h at 230VAC, 15A
BMW i3 Curb 1,365kg (3,000 lb)	Since 2019: 42kWh, LMO/NMC, large 60A prismatic cells, battery weighs ~270kg (595 lb) driving range: EPA 246 (154 mi); NEDC 345km (215 mi); WLTP 285 (178 mi)	11kW on-board AC charger; ~4h charge; 50kW DC charge; 30 min charge.
Nissan Leaf*	30kWh; Li-manganese, 192 cells; air cooled; 272kg (600 lb), driving range up to 250km (156 miles)	8h at 230VAC, 15A; 4h at 230VAC, 30A
Tesla S* Curb 2,100kg (4,630 lb)	70kWh and 90kWh, 18650 NCA cells of 3.4Ah; liquid cooled; 90kWh pack has 7,616 cells; battery weighs 540kg (1,200 lb); S 85 has up to 424km range (265 mi)	9h with 10kW charger; 120kW Supercharger, 80% charge in 30 min
Tesla 3 Curb 1,872 kg (4072 lb)	Since 2018, 75kWh battery, driving range 496km (310 mi); 346hp engine, energy consumption 15kWh /100km (24kWh/mi)	11.5kW on-board AC charger; DC charge 30 min
Chevy Bolt Curb 1,616kg; battery 440kg	60kWh; 288 cells in 96s3p format, EPA driving rate 383km (238 miles); liquid cooled;  200hp electric motor (150kW)	40h at 115VAC, 15A; 10h at 230VAC, 30A 1h with 50kWh

*  In 2015/16 Tesla S 85 increased the battery from 85kWh to 90kWh; Nissan Leaf from 25kWh to 30kWh.

______

The potential benefits of EVs include:

-1. Reduced fuel costs: EVs convert over 62% of the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels. Conventional gasoline vehicles only convert about 12%–16% of the energy stored in gasoline to power at the wheels.

-2. Lower maintenance costs: Electric motors provide quiet, smooth operation and stronger acceleration and require less maintenance than internal combustion engines (ICEs). 

-3. Enhanced energy security

-4. Reduced air pollution (with associated health benefits)

-5. An improved driving experience

-6. Greenhouse gas emissions can be eliminated if EVs are charged using renewable energy.

Up to 2019, more than 7 million EVs have been sold worldwide with the pace of sales accelerating rapidly.

_

EVs have some drawbacks compared to gasoline vehicles:

-1. Driving range. EVs have a shorter driving range than most conventional vehicles—although EV driving ranges are improving. Most EVs can travel more than 100 miles on a charge, and some can travel in excess of 200 or 300 miles depending on the model.

-2. Recharge time. Fully recharging the battery pack can take 3 to 12 hours. Even a “fast charge” to 80% capacity can take 30 min.

-3. Batteries for EVs are designed for extended life, and these batteries may last 12 to 15 years in moderate climates and 8 to 12 years in severe climates. However, these batteries are expensive, and replacing them may be costly if they fail. 

_____

Electric cars cost more to insure:

A study of electric cars currently on sale has shown that drivers who want to ‘go green’ will have to pay 45 per cent more for insurance than the average motorist. It means the rising number of drivers buying electric cars could see any potential savings, such as lower ‘fuel’ bills, wiped out by costly cover.

Insurers put increased electric car premiums down to the cars’ higher purchase price, the need for specialist equipment and repairs, and a lack of data on driver behaviour. As more drivers plug in to electric, experts predict that the insurance market will undergo a degree of correction.

Rob Cummings, head of Motor and Liability at the Association of British Insurers (ABI) puts the high cost of insurance down to two main factors. First, the complex parts used within the cars, such as the batteries and electric motors. Second, the specialist skills needed to repair them after an accident. “As this technology becomes more mainstream, drivers can expect this pressure on insurance premiums to reduce,” said Cummings. “We would always advise customers to shop around to ensure they are getting the best deal possible when renewing their insurance policy.”

_____

Why Electric Car is so Expensive:

-1. Until recently Tesla the pioneer of this kind of technology basically had a monopoly on EV cars. Being a technology company instead of an established car manufacturer they were literally starting from scratch.  This required extensive research and development, the construction of facilities to assemble the cars and a myriad of other hurdles to simply have their cars legally allowed on the road. This was THEN passed onto the consumer who was the early adopter type. Now that traditional car companies are building their business toward an EV future, they are developing platforms to build multiple cars – the main issue today is scale.  The number of cars being made reflecting demand.  As demand increases, production efficiencies will impact on the price to drive them down over time.

-2. Also because of what goes in them. An EV uses the same rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that are in your laptop or mobile phone, they’re just much bigger to enable them to deliver far more energy. The priciest component in each cell is the cathode, one of the two electrodes that store and release a charge. That’s because the materials needed in cathodes to pack in more energy are often expensive: metals like cobalt, nickel, lithium and manganese. They need to be mined, processed and converted into high-purity chemical compounds.

At current rates and pack sizes, the average battery cost for a typical electric vehicle works out to about $7,350. That’s come down a lot — 87% over the past decade. But the average pack price of $156 per kilowatt hour (from about $1,183 in 2010) is still above the $100 threshold at which the cost of an electric vehicle should match a car with an internal-combustion engine. That would help trigger mass adoption.

Costs aren’t expected to keep falling as quickly, but lithium-ion packs are on track to drop to $93 per kWh by 2024, according to BNEF forecasts. To get there, one focus for manufacturers is replacing high-cost cobalt with nickel. That has a double benefit: nickel is cheaper and it also holds more energy, allowing manufacturers to reduce the volume needed. On the other hand, cobalt’s advantage is that it doesn’t overheat or catch fire easily, meaning manufacturers need to make safety adjustments when they use a substitute. Panasonic Corp. in Japan plans to commercialize a cobalt-free version of a high-energy battery in two to three years; other suppliers already produce lower-energy ones. There’s also attention on the battery packs, often resembling oversized suitcases, that house rows of individual cells. Simplifying the design, and using a standard product for a range of vehicles — rather than a pack tailored to each model — will deliver additional savings.

_____

_____

Impact of EV:

Electric vehicle transformation:

Electric vehicles are poised to transform nearly every aspect of transportation, including fuel, carbon emissions, costs, repairs, and driving habits. The primary impetus now is decarbonization to address the climate change emergency, but it soon may shift to economics because electric vehicles are anticipated to be cheaper and higher-performing than gasoline cars.

How far electrification will go depends primarily on a single factor—battery technology. In comparing electric with gasoline vehicles, all the downsides for electric arise from the battery. Purchase price, range, charging time, lifetime, and safety are all battery-driven handicaps. On the upside, electric vehicles have lower greenhouse gas emissions, provided the electricity grid that supports them is powered by renewable energy. The renewable share of global electricity is up from 22% in 2001 to 33% today, with Europe at 36%, China at 26%, and the United States at 18%. Moreover, the operation and maintenance costs of electric vehicles are substantially lower than for gasoline cars. Today, for high-mileage cars such as taxis, which typically travel 70,000 miles/year, the total cost of ownership of an electric vehicle, including purchase price, insurance, fuel, and maintenance, is much lower than for a gasoline car. This means that government and commercial fleets used for local service likely will convert to electric to save money, a major step in the electrification trajectory. To reach cost parity with personal gasoline cars, which typically travel 12,000 to 15,000 miles/year, battery prices must decline to near $100/kWh from the present value of $180 to $200/kWh.

Impact on Energy System:

Electric vehicles will need to be charged from the grid, which may create as much as a 20 to 38% increase in electricity demand by 2050. In developed countries, this should provide revenue for utilities to accelerate transformation to a grid-connected renewable energy system with extensive energy storage and to digital energy management. In developing countries, the increased electricity demand could spur the first-time installation of modern grids that are unencumbered by the legacy of the older, less functional grids of the developed world. Beyond electricity, electric vehicles require a massive rollout of charging stations, which could stimulate local economic and job growth.

Electric vehicles also should bring a welcome flexibility to the energy system. Untied from oil and gasoline, they would run on whatever powers the grid—sunlight, wind, natural gas, nuclear power, or hydropower. This removes a fundamental dependence of transportation on oil, including substantial amounts of foreign oil in many countries. Electricity is fundamentally a local product, not amenable to long-distance trade, so domestic economies should reap the economic and job benefits now held by foreign oil interests. The unification of transportation with electricity creates new horizons of opportunity for the grid as well. Electric vehicles are a readily available distributed energy resource of at least 1000 GWh, which represents 10% of the battery capacity of 100 million vehicles, each with a 100-kWh battery. The potential of this distributed energy resource for demand response and for grid storage has not yet been seriously explored.

Impact on Geoeconomics:

The electrification of transportation is a watershed moment in energy economics. For more than a century, oil has been the lifeblood of transportation, and the oil industry has grown steadily as transportation has expanded with industrialization and rising standards of living. But oil is abundant in relatively few countries, and these countries assume outsized geoeconomic importance because oil for transportation is a critical societal need. By contrast, sunlight and wind are available everywhere, and electricity generation is mostly a domestic enterprise. The electrification of transportation means that oil will lose one of its critical markets—and with it some of its international economic and political power.

What will replace oil as the lifeblood of transportation? The electrification of transportation creates a new commodity—not electricity, which is already established and abundant around the world, but battery technology. The battery is the key to electric transportation, the focal point for progress, and the open opportunity to determine the future of electric vehicles. Battery innovation is needed to achieve lower purchase price, faster charging, longer range, extended lifetime, and greater safety. These challenges do not yet have obvious solutions, but those who discover them will have substantial power in the battery marketplace.

Battery Development:  

One of the most promising and disruptive battery innovations is the combination of lithium metal anodes and solid-state electrolytes. Every atom of a lithium metal anode can store and release energy during the charge-discharge cycle, whereas in graphite anodes now used in lithium-ion batteries, only 14% of the atoms (one lithium for every six carbons) can store or release energy. The greater capacity of the lithium metal anode could approximately double the energy density of the lithium-ion battery, extending the driving range of electric vehicles to compete with gasoline cars.

Solid-state electrolytes bring several advantages to lithium-ion batteries. They are not flammable, eliminating the primary safety hazard of lithium-ion batteries—the thermal runaway reaction that causes batteries to burst into flames if their temperature exceeds about 150°C. Some solid-state electrolytes, including sulfides such as Li2S–P2S5 (LPS) and garnets such as Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO), have high lithium-ion conductivity at room temperature, enabling the high-power performance needed for fast charging. Solid-state electrolytes conduct heat better than liquid electrolytes, protecting against the development of “hot spots” that trigger degradation and shorten battery life. In addition, the mechanical rigidity of solid-state electrolytes can block the growth of dendrites that form on the lithium metal anode surface and grow across liquid electrolytes to the cathode, shorting out the battery. These benefits of solid-state electrolytes are balanced by still-unresolved research challenges, including narrow working voltage windows, high reactivity with lithium anodes, and long-term stability.

Material Supply Chains:

Lithium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, and graphite are essential for battery technology, and some of these elements are found in only a few places in the world, not unlike oil. The expected rapid increase in electric vehicle sales could threaten the supply chains for lithium, cobalt, and graphite in the short term because of the time required to ramp up new materials production and the relative scarcity of geographic sources. In the longer term, there are adequate resources in Earth’s crust if lithium-ion batteries are recycled. Currently, less than 5% of Li-ion batteries are recycled, compared to more than 99.5% of lead-acid batteries. Research and development to develop Li-ion battery recycling technology is an urgent need.

Batteries and their supply chains are the new oil; leadership in the battery and electric vehicle market requires strategically securing not only battery technology but also the battery materials supply chain. Recycling can play a substantial role in securing the supply chain for lithium-ion batteries, lowering costs by as much as 20% and supplying as much as 50% of the required materials. The nation or region that leads battery technology and secures its supply chain will have outsized influence on geoeconomics and world development.

Global Landscape:

Europe has grasped the electric vehicle opportunity, driven by its strict carbon emission requirements for future vehicles. The United States, by contrast, has proposed weakening its carbon emission requirements, and target dates for electrification of transportation are correspondingly farther out. In the International Energy Agency’s New Policy Scenario, electric vehicles are projected to reach 26% of new car sales in Europe by 2030, but only 8% in the United States. China slightly leads Europe, with a 28% share of electric vehicles in 2030. In addition, China has moved strategically to secure its battery supply chain. China now has the largest electrical vehicle market and the largest battery manufacturing enterprise in the world, amounting to 60% of the global capacity. It is well positioned to benefit economically and politically from the coming global electrification of transportation.

Vehicles may serve the purpose of transportation, but they affect a lot of other areas. Therefore, the shift in the vehicle world created by EVs impacts the environment, the economy, and being electric, the electrical systems to a great extent. EVs are gaining popularity because of the benefits they provide in all these areas, but with them, there come some problems as well. Figure below illustrates the impacts of EVs on the power grid, environment and economy.

______

______

LEV: 

One increasingly important segment in the EV market is light electric vehicles (LEVs). In part, their attractiveness is due to their low initial outlay as well as their budget-friendly operational and maintenance costs. These factors make them accessible to a large part of the global population, even in emerging markets. LEVs also come with the convenience of easy charging on the standard power grid. And, most importantly, they fulfil a growing number of zero-emissions mandates.

What is more, LEVs – which include everything from e-scooters and e-bikes, to e-rickshaws and e-forklifts, to e-motorbikes and low speed electric vehicles – are easy to drive and to handle. In fact, a license is typically not required to operate one. In the coming years, LEVs will advance to include sensors, enabling some of the automated smart features found in many of today’s high-end, often electrified cars.

High power LEVs with power level from 10 to 30+ kW:

Target applications:

E-forklifts

Light utility vehicles (LUVs)

Low speed electric vehicles (LSEVs / micro EVs)

E-motorbikes

E-golf carts

This category mainly consists of four-wheeled vehicles that accommodate carry-on items. The exact term used to describe such vehicles is highly dependent on the market they are operated in. In China, for instance, they are known as small EV cars, low speed EV cars and micro EV cars. In the EU, these same microcars are called quadricycles while the USA prefers the term neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs).

Low power LEVs with power level from 1 to 10 kW:

Target applications:

E-scooters (standing, self-balancing and folding types)

E-bikes

E-rickshaws, other e-three-wheelers

Low power LEVs best suit two- and three-wheel designs, in particular vehicles used to transport people over short distances. Especially in some of Asia’s emerging markets, home to some of the world’s most polluted cities, electric two- and three-wheelers are helping improve air quality and, with it, residents’ quality of life.

_____

Tiny EV:

It’s not quite a Tesla, for sure, but bowling down the street in a Low Speed Electric Vehicle (LSEV) will definitely turn a few heads. Lightweight, and limited to speeds of around 40 km/h, the technology underneath their quirky design has come a long way since the bubble cars of the 80s.

Already pretty popular in China, where these miniature electric vehicles offer an alternative to motorcycles, bicycles and e-bikes, policymakers predict that they could disrupt the country’s demand for fossil fuels thanks to a surprising market. Snapping up these mini electric vehicles in their millions are those who haven’t ever owned a four-wheeled vehicle before. They are extremely cheap to buy, easy to park and perfect for urban centers where space is at a premium. Their low speed and lightweight construction mean that you don’t need a license to drive one adding to their appeal for those who might not have previously considered buying a car of any sort.

The Baker Institute at Rice University says that after entering the market with an electric vehicle, these drivers are more likely to stay electric in the future reducing demand for more conventional vehicles. Sales are on the rise but are only just reaching a point where significant data about those who buy them can be collected. Author of the paper on tiny car, Gabriel Collins, writes that it will be interesting to see where these first-time buyers go afterwards and whether a tiny, cheap electric vehicle encourages them to stay away from petrol in the long-term.

____ 

3D printing a car in just 3 days:

Smaller cars can mean easier, cheaper construction as well. Italian company, XEV, are pushing that potential by rapidly 3D printing parts, reducing manufacturing time to three days. Just 2.5m by 1.5m, the YOYO could cost as little as €6,600 and is made for driving short, urban distances. “Conventional electric cars are usually large, heavy, with big electric motors and batteries designed for city and motorway driving,” a representative from XEV explains, “the energy efficiency of low-speed electric vehicles such as YOYO is much better than conventional electric vehicles in an urban environment because they don’t need to carry around unnecessary weight and waste power on unnecessarily big motors.”

And who do they hope will be the market for these compact cars? Young people looking for a way to get around in crowded urban environments. “YOYO provides simple yet high tech urban mobility experience that will be appreciated both by generation Z and millennial users,” says the company.

_____

Solar car:

Solar cars are electric vehicles powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy, usually through photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels that convert the sun’s energy directly into electric energy, usually to charge a battery.

Charging your car might mean running an extension cord from your condo to the street and waiting 12 hours to get a mere 50 miles of range. But what if you didn’t need to plug in at all? That’s the promise of the Aptera EV. It’s a three-wheeled, two-passenger “Never Charge Vehicle” priced from $25,900 to $46,000. The car is available to preorder now for $100 down and is expected to ship in 2021.

Instead of relying on electricity to charge, the vehicle can get substantial power via solar panels. And thanks to an extremely aerodynamic shape built out of strong, lightweight materials including carbon, Kevlar, and hemp, it needs less energy than competitors to drive, so the solar panels can generate meaningful miles on the road, whereas they barely move the needle on most electric cars.

Aptera’s newest vehicle can soak up 5 miles of charge every hour it’s in bright sun, or about 40 miles of free range per day. (Cloudier days will be slower.) With extra panels that can be attached to the hood and hatch during charging, that figure bumps to a full 64 miles of range per day. Given that the average person drives around 15 miles to work, the Aptera EV could be a viable commuter car for the week—especially if you park on blacktop with access to sunlight.

The Aptera EV might look a little quirky as seen in the figure below, but it’s designed to run without a charge, solving one of the biggest problems of electric vehicles.

_______

_______ 

Section-8

Types of EV:

_

EVs can run solely on electric propulsion or they can have an ICE working alongside it. Having only batteries as energy source constitutes the basic kind of EV, but there are kinds that can employ other energy source modes. These can be called hybrid EVs (HEVs). The International Electrotechnical Commission’s Technical Committee 69 (Electric Road Vehicles) proposed that vehicles using two or more types of energy source, storage or converters can be called as an HEV as long as at least one of those provide electrical energy. This definition makes a lot of combinations possible for HEVs like ICE and battery, battery and flywheel, battery and capacitor, battery and fuel cell, etc. Therefore, the common population and specialists both started calling vehicles with an ICE and electric motor combination HEVs, battery and capacitor ones as ultra-capacitor-assisted EVs, and the ones with battery and fuel cell FCEVs. These terminologies have become widely accepted and according to this norm, EVs can be categorized as follows: 

(1) Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

(2) Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

(3) Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)

(4) Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV)

_

In brief, the system architecture of the four types of electric cars can be seen in the following figure:

_

Figure below shows features of Transitional Electric Vehicles:

Figure above illustrates the features of transitional electric vehicle types, including HEVs, Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) and Extended-Range Electric Vehicles (E-REVs). Each is progressively more electrified and plays a progressively larger role toward shifting a portion of the transportation energy burden toward other sources and away from petroleum. 

_____

_____

Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV):

Hybrid electric vehicles are typically referred to as “hybrids,” and although the technology has been around for decades, the cars didn’t really have material market penetration until 1997 when Toyota introduced the Prius. Since then, the Toyota Prius has been the world’s best selling car and the most recognizable hybrid electric vehicle. However, there are a number of hybrid models on the market today including the Kia Optima Hybrid, Ford Fusion Hybrid, Kia Niro, Hyundai Ioniq HEV and several others.

Hybrid electric vehicles combine a conventional internal combustion engine with an electric propulsion system. The internal combustion engine does most of the work, while the electric motor assists the engine, with its main purpose being to increase the fuel economy.

Hybrids do not have the ability to plug in and recharge from the grid, so they use their internal combustion engines and regenerative braking systems to recharge their propulsion vehicle batteries. Most hybrids do not have the ability to propel the car on battery power alone, and must have the combustion engine running whenever the vehicle is moving. However, there are a few hybrids that can propel the vehicle for a few feet at low speeds, before the combustion engine needs to turn on and assist.

Hybrid electric vehicles have better fuel economy and a lower total cost of ownership when compared to similar conventional cars, however they usually also cost more to purchase initially. For example, the Toyota Prius gets up to 54 mpg in urban environments and 50 mpg on the highway as standard, while other conventional gas-powered sedans get less mileage like the Volkswagen Passat TDI gets 35 mpg, the Nissan Altima gets 31 mpg and the Mazda6 gets 32 mpg.

The basic principle with hybrid vehicles is that the different motors work better at different speeds; the electric motor is more efficient at producing torque, or turning power, and the combustion engine is better for maintaining high speed (better than typical electric motor). Switching from one to the other at the proper time while speeding up yields a win-win in terms of energy efficiency, as such that translates into greater fuel efficiency, for example.

Today’s hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are powered by an internal combustion engine in combination with one or more electric motors that use energy stored in batteries. HEVs combine the benefits of high fuel economy and low tailpipe emissions with the power and range of conventional vehicles. In an HEV, the extra power provided by the electric motor may allow for a smaller combustion engine. The battery can also power auxiliary loads and reduce engine idling when the vehicle is stopped. Together, these features result in better fuel economy without sacrificing performance.

An HEV cannot plug in to off-board sources of electricity to charge the battery. Instead, the vehicle uses regenerative braking and the internal combustion engine to charge. The vehicle captures energy normally lost during braking by using the electric motor as a generator and storing the captured energy in the battery.

_

HEVs can be either mild or full hybrids, and full hybrids can be designed in series or parallel configurations.

-1. Mild hybrids—also called micro hybrids—use a battery and electric motor to help power the vehicle and can allow the engine to shut off when the vehicle stops (such as at traffic lights or in stop-and-go traffic), further improving fuel economy. Mild hybrid systems cannot power the vehicle using electricity alone. These vehicles generally cost less than full hybrids but provide less fuel economy benefit than full hybrids.

-2. Full hybrids have larger batteries and more powerful electric motors, which can power the vehicle for short distances and at low speeds. These vehicles cost more than mild hybrids but provide better fuel economy benefits.

There are different ways to combine the power from the electric motor and the engine. Parallel hybrids—the most common HEV design—connect the engine and the electric motor to the wheels through mechanical coupling. Both the electric motor and the internal combustion engine drive the wheels directly. Series hybrids, which use only the electric motor to drive the wheels, are more commonly found in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.

___

Mild hybrid – electric motor boosts combustion engine as seen in the figure below:

Mild hybrid vehicles – also known as 48-volt hybrids or MHEVs (mild hybrid electric vehicles) – have an electric motor that assists the combustion engine. The electric motor kicks in when a lot of fuel is being burned, particularly during startup. It can also serve to boost the engine’s power during acceleration. The battery is exclusively charged via regenerative braking. Mild hybrids do not use charging stations.

The main advantage of a mild hybrid is its fuel consumption, that is 0.1 gallons (per 62 miles) lower than that of a petrol car. Since less fuel is consumed, the vehicle can go farther on a full tank of petrol or diesel. Because the main propulsion system is powered by a combustion engine, mild hybrids benefit from the ubiquity of petrol stations. So mild hybrids are ideal for motorists who are looking for maximum range combined with low fuel consumption and who don’t want to worry about charging the battery. 

Because they consume less fuel, mild hybrids have lower emissions, but the electric motor is not capable of powering the car on its own. This is why mild hybrids get none of the incentives that are offered for EVs.

_

There are different versions of hybrids, but in general these are more like battery-assisted vehicles than vehicles that are powered by batteries at any given time. The Toyota Prius was first introduced in Japan in the late 1990’s, and it reached the U.S. market in 2001. The second and third generation Priuses dominated in the United States from 2003–2015, and now we have the 4th generation family of Prius models. There are now Plug-in Hybrid versions of the Prius, but the traditional Prius is the best example of a Hybrid EV. The 2020 Toyota Prius MSRP starts at $24,325, and the fuel economy is 58 mpg in the city and 53 mpg on the highway with the Two Eco trim level. With so many Battery EVs being developed, the traditional hybrid is becoming more of a “status quo” car for environmentalists seeking to significantly reduce their carbon footprint.

_______

_______

Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV):

A plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) has both a combustion engine and an electric motor. Each one is capable of powering the vehicle on its own as seen in the figure below. Plug-in hybrids use regenerative braking as their energy source, but they can also be plugged in to recharge the battery.

_

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) use batteries to power an electric motor, as well as another fuel, such as gasoline or diesel, to power an internal combustion engine or other propulsion source. PHEVs can charge their batteries through charging equipment and regenerative braking. Using electricity from the grid to run the vehicle some or all of the time reduces operating costs and fuel use, relative to conventional vehicles. PHEVs may also produce lower levels of emissions, depending on the electricity source and how often the vehicle is operated in all-electric mode.

There are several light-duty PHEVs commercially available, and medium-duty vehicles are now entering the market. Medium- and heavy-duty vehicles can also be converted to PHEVs. Although PHEVs are generally more expensive than similar conventional and hybrid vehicles, some cost can be recovered through fuel savings, a federal tax credit, or state incentives. 

PHEVs have an internal combustion engine and an electric motor, which uses energy stored in batteries. PHEVs generally have larger battery packs than hybrid electric vehicles. This makes it possible to drive moderate distances using just electricity (about 15 to 60-plus miles in current models), commonly referred to as the “electric range” of the vehicle.

During urban driving, most of a PHEV’s power can come from stored electricity. For example, a light-duty PHEV driver might drive to and from work on all-electric power, plug the vehicle in to charge at night, and be ready for another all-electric commute the next day. The internal combustion engine powers the vehicle when the battery is mostly depleted, during rapid acceleration, or when intensive heating or air conditioning loads are present. Some heavy-duty PHEVs work the opposite way, with the internal combustion engine used for driving to and from a job site and electricity used to power the vehicle’s auxiliary equipment or control the cab’s climate while at the job site.

PHEV batteries can be charged by an outside electric power source, by the internal combustion engine, or through regenerative braking. During braking, the electric motor acts as a generator, using the energy to charge the battery, thereby recapturing energy that would have been lost.

PHEV fuel consumption depends on the distance driven between battery charges. For example, if the vehicle is never plugged in to charge, fuel economy will be about the same as a similarly sized hybrid electric vehicle. If the vehicle is driven a shorter distance than its all-electric range and plugged in to charge between trips, it may be possible to use only electric power. Therefore, consistently charging the vehicle is the best way to maximize the electric benefits.

Beyond battery storage and motor power, there are various ways to combine the power from the electric motor and the engine. The two main configurations are parallel and series. Some PHEVs use transmissions that allow them to operate in either parallel or series configurations, switching between the two based on the drive profile.

-1. Parallel hybrid operation connects the engine and the electric motor to the wheels through mechanical coupling. Both the electric motor and the engine can drive the wheels directly.

-2. Series plug-in hybrids use only the electric motor to drive the wheels. The internal combustion engine is used to generate electricity for the motor. Vehicles of this type are often referred to as extended-range electric vehicles. The electric motor drives the wheels almost all of the time, but the vehicle can switch to work like a parallel hybrid at highway speeds when the battery is depleted.

_

A range extender is a fuel-based auxiliary power unit (APU) that extends the range of a battery electric vehicle by driving an electric generator that charges the vehicle’s battery. This arrangement is known as a series hybrid drivetrain. The most commonly used range extenders are internal combustion engines, but fuel-cells or other engine types can be used. Range extender vehicles are also referred to as extended-range electric vehicles (EREV), range-extended electric vehicles (REEV), and range-extended battery-electric vehicle (BEVx) by the California Air Resources Board (CARB).  The key function of the range extender is to increase the vehicle’s range. Range autonomy is one of the main barriers for the commercial success of electric vehicles, and extending the vehicle’s range when the battery is depleted helps alleviate range anxiety.

Range Extender Hybrid EVs often considered PHEVs, but they typically have higher battery ranges than Plug-in Hybrid EVs. The best example is the Chevy Volt. The 2019 Chevy Volt has a starting MSRP of $33,520 and an all-battery range of 53 miles. For people dipping their toes in the EV market, this is probably the ideal vehicle as it has a high all-battery range, and beyond that is powered by the internal combustion engine that people are accustomed to. For someone with a hefty commute, the Chevy Volt could potentially still get you to work and back every day on just the battery without having to worry about getting to a charging station before making it back home. The Volt’s fuel economy without the battery is 42 MPG.

___

The biggest difference between a regular hybrid vehicle and a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle is that the plug-ins have larger batteries and can be plugged in to charge the batteries. They also typically have larger electric motors, because PHEVs are responsible for more work.

Since plug-in electric cars have larger vehicle batteries, they can propel the car for a period of time without the assistance of the combustion engine. Some plug-in electric cars, like the Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid, Ford C-Max Hybrid and Honda Clarity PHEV can go 30 to 50 miles on the battery alone, and the BMW i3 REx plug-in hybrid can go 126 miles on its battery before the gasoline combustion engine needs to turn on.

Plug-in hybrids can be an excellent choice for consumers who need or want additional range. For those that need to drive very long distances on a frequent basis, a plug-in hybrid offers the flexibility of being able to quickly fill up with gasoline where charging stations may not be available. Plug-in hybrids allow their owners to drive entirely on electricity on the days when they don’t exceed the vehicle’s all-electric range, yet have the combustion engine there when they need it.

While owners will want to keep their plug-in hybrids charged as often as possible to enjoy the savings that driving on electricity provides, they aren’t required to charge the battery in order to use the vehicle. Plug-in hybrids will act like a conventional hybrid electric vehicle if they aren’t charged up from a wall outlet. Therefore, if for some reason the owner forgets to plug the vehicle in one day or drives to a destination that doesn’t have access to an electricity supply, it’s not an issue. Generally, fuel costs are higher when using the gas-powered combustion engine versus electric power.

_

Below are some of the best electric car plugin hybrids available in the U.S. market today: the Toyota Prius Prime, the Ford Fusion Energi and the Honda Clarity PHEV. As you can see, you can charge the batteries significantly faster with a JuiceBox Pro 40 240V smart charger, allowing you to enjoy more time driving on electrons, and less time at the pump.    

_

Plug In Hybrid Model	Max Charge Rate	Battery Size	Charge Time with L1 charger	Charge Time with JuiceBox Pro 40	All-Electric Range
Toyota Prius Prime Ford Fusion Energi Honda Clarity PHEV	3.3 kW 3.3 kW 6.6 kW	9 kWh 9 kWh 17.7 kWh	6 hrs 6 hrs 14 hrs	2.5 hrs 2.5 hrs 3 hrs	25 miles 26 miles 47 miles

_ 

PHEVs are ideal for motorists who want to use their cars in a variety of ways. You can use the electric motor for daily commutes, but also take advantage of the great range and flexibility of a petrol engine when you go on longer trips. In addition, owners can benefit directly from financial incentives for electric vehicles in certain countries and indirectly from lower taxes from reduced CO2 emissions.

CO2 emissions 49-47 g/km (combined)

Fuel consumption 2.2-2.1 L/100 km (combined)

Power consumption 13.6-13.3 kWh/100 km (combined)

The 2018 Audi A3 Plug-in Hybrid started at $40,475 with a fuel economy at 83–86 MPGe, significantly lower than Battery EVs, but still much better than typical all-gasoline powered cars. While $40k is a bit expensive, the used car pricing for a 2018 Audi A3 Plug-in Hybrid is closer to $20–25k right now.

______

______

Battery electric vehicle (BEV):  

BEV uses electricity from a battery rather than the combustion of fuel to power the engine (electric motor) as seen in the figure below. The capacity of the battery determines the EV’s range (how far it can go on a single charge of the battery).

_

All-electric vehicles (EVs), also referred to as battery electric vehicles, use a battery pack to store the electrical energy that powers the motor. EV batteries are charged by plugging the vehicle in to an electric power source. Although electricity production may contribute to air pollution, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency categorizes all-electric vehicles as zero-emission vehicles because they produce no direct exhaust or tailpipe emissions.

Both heavy-duty and light-duty EVs are commercially available. EVs are typically more expensive than similar conventional and hybrid vehicles, although some cost can be recovered through fuel savings, a federal tax credit, or state incentives. 

Today’s EVs generally have a shorter range (per charge) than comparable conventional vehicles have (per tank of gas). However, the increasing range of new models and the continued development of high powered charging equipment is reducing this gap. The efficiency and driving range of EVs varies substantially based on driving conditions. Extreme outside temperatures tend to reduce range, because more energy must be used to heat or cool the cabin. EVs are more efficient under city driving than highway travel. City driving conditions have more frequent stops, which maximize the benefits of regenerative braking, while highway travel typically requires more energy to overcome the increased drag at higher speeds. Compared with gradual acceleration, rapid acceleration reduces vehicle range. Hauling heavy loads or driving up significant inclines also has the potential to reduce range.

_

Charging time depends on the charger configuration, its infrastructure and operating power level. Advantages of BEVs are their simple construction, operation and convenience. These do not produce any greenhouse gas (GHG), do not create any noise and therefore beneficial to the environment. Electric propulsion provides instant and high torques, even at low speeds. These advantages, coupled with their limitation of range, makes them the perfect vehicle to use in urban areas; urban driving requires running at slow or medium speeds, and these ranges demand a lot of torque. Nissan Leaf and Teslas are some high-selling BEVs these days, along with some Chinese vehicles.

_

Take a look at the table below to see the battery size, driving range and charging times of four of the popular battery electric vehicles available today.

_

BEV Model	Max Charge Rate	Battery Size	Charge Time with Level 1 charger	Charge Time with JuiceBox Pro 40	Driving Range
Tesla Model S 75D Chevy Bolt EV Nissan LEAF ePlus BMW i3	11.5 kW 7.7 kW 6.6 kW 7.7 kW	75 kWh 60 kWh 62 kWh 42 kWh	65 hrs 48 hrs 52 hrs 35 hrs	8 hrs 8.5 hrs 10 hrs 5.5 hrs	237 miles 238 miles 226 miles 153 miles

_

For those of you that are looking for cars that are zero or near-zero greenhouse gas emissions, Battery Electric Vehicles are the purest form of EVs, and they take the biggest strides toward cutting emissions. Battery Electric Vehicles don’t use any gasoline to power the vehicle, and therefore, have no tailpipe emissions. This means that if your electricity comes from renewable energy, your carbon footprint is far closer to zero at least when it comes to your transportation. If your utility or your home is powered by solar panels or wind turbines, then your car will also be powered that way and not by fossil fuels. Some notable Battery Electric Vehicles include the Tesla S, the BMW i3, and the Nissan Leaf. The Nissan Leaf is the most affordable of this type of EV. The 2019 Nissan Leaf started at an MSRP of $29,990 with a range of 150–225 miles. For a typical daily commute and for short weekend trips escaping the suburbs or city, this type of EV is more than capable. The charge time for the Nissan Leaf is 8 to 11 hours with at 220 volts, which is essentially an overnight session. At 440 volts, the Nissan Leaf charges in under an hour though. The fuel economy for a Nissan Leaf is up to 124 MPGe in the city and 99 MPGe on the highway.

______ 

______

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV):

FCEVs also go by the name Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV). They got the name because the heart of such vehicles is fuel cells that use chemical reactions to produce electricity. Hydrogen is the fuel of choice for FCVs to carry out this reaction, so they are often called hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. FCVs carry the hydrogen in special high-pressure tanks, another ingredient for the power generating process is oxygen, which it acquires from the air sucked in from the environment. Electricity generated from the fuel cells goes to an electric motor which drives the wheels. Excess energy is stored in storage systems like batteries or supercapacitors. Commercially available FCVs like the Toyota Mirai or Honda Clarity use batteries for this purpose. FCVs only produce water as a byproduct of its power generating process which is ejected out of the car through the tailpipes. The configuration of an FCV is shown in figure below:

In FCEV oxygen from air and hydrogen from the cylinders react in fuel cells to produce electricity that runs the motor. Only water is produced as by-product which is released in the environment. 

A major advantage is and maybe the most important one right now, refilling these vehicles takes the same amount of time required to fill a conventional vehicle at a gas pump. This makes adoption of these vehicles more likely in the near future. A major current obstacle in adopting this technology is the scarcity of hydrogen fuel stations, but then again, BEV or PHEV charging stations were not a common scenario even a few years back. A report to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) pointed to another disadvantage which is the high cost of fuel cells, that cost more than $200 per kW, which is far greater than ICE (less than $50 per kW). There are also concerns regarding safety in case of flammable hydrogen leaking out of the tanks. If these obstacles were eliminated, FCVs could really represent the future of cars.  

_

With a BEV, once the electricity is generated – hopefully from a renewable source – the supply of this to your vehicle charging location loses about 5%. The charging and discharging of the battery then lose another 10%. Finally, the motor wastes another 5% driving the vehicle. That makes for a total loss of 20%.

With a hydrogen fuel cell, however, you first have to convert the electricity to hydrogen via electrolysis, which is only 75% efficient. Then the gas has to be compressed, chilled and transported, which loses another 10%. The fuel cell process of converting hydrogen back to electricity is only 60% efficient, after which you have the same 5% loss from driving the vehicle motor as for a BEV. The grand total is a 62% loss – more than three times as much. Or, to put it another way, for every kW of electricity supply, you get 800W for a BEV, but only 380W for an FCV – less than half as much. That’s a huge inefficiency.

______

Fuel economy of FCEV:  

The following table compares EPA’s fuel economy expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe) for the hydrogen fuel cell vehicles rated by the EPA as of December 2017, and available only in California.

 

Vehicle	Model year	Combined fuel economy	City fuel economy	Highway fuel economy	Range	Annual fuel cost
Hyundai Tucson Fuel Cell	2017	49 mpg-e	48 mpg-e	50 mpg-e	265 mi (426 km)	US$1,700
Toyota Mirai	2016	66 mpg-e	66 mpg-e	66 mpg-e	312 mi (502 km)	US$1,250
Honda Clarity Fuel Cell	2017	67 mpg-e	68 mpg-e	66 mpg-e	366 mi (589 km)	–

Notes: 

-1. One kg of hydrogen has roughly the same energy content as one U.S. gallon of gasoline. 

-2. Standard BEV has fuel economy of 120 to 140 MPGe, much higher than hydrogen cars.  

_

A 2017 analysis published in Green Car Reports found that the best hydrogen fuel cell vehicles consume “more than three times more electricity per mile than an electric vehicle … generate more greenhouse-gas emissions than other powertrain technologies … [and have] very high fuel costs. … Considering all the obstacles and requirements for new infrastructure (estimated to cost as much as $400 billion), fuel-cell vehicles seem likely to be a niche technology at best, with little impact on U.S. oil consumption. In 2017, Michael Barnard, writing in Forbes, listed the continuing disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell cars and concluded that “by about 2008, it was very clear that hydrogen was and would be inferior to battery technology as a storage of energy for vehicles. By 2025 the last hold outs should likely be retiring their fuel cell dreams.”

A 2019 video by Real Engineering noted that using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. The 95% of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, and producing hydrogen from water is an energy-consuming process. Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure, and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon. The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance. Also in 2019, Katsushi Inoue, the president of Honda Europe, stated, “Our focus is on hybrid and electric vehicles now. Maybe hydrogen fuel cell cars will come, but that’s a technology for the next era.” A 2020 assessment concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs are 80% efficient.

The 2019 Honda Clarity Fuel Cell is a good example of an FCEV, though it is far from affordable to the average consumer starting at $58,490 with a fuel economy of 69 MPGe in the city and 67 MPGe on the highway. Fuel Cell EVs are in early stage, and the vehicles and fueling infrastructure have a long way to go before we will see mass adoption.

_____

Triple-hybrid:

Triple-hybrid is a registered trademark (German Trademark DE 307 68 078, European Community trademark application CTM 010704237) of the German company Proton Motor Fuel Cell GmbH which is used to designate a special drive system that has been developed and patented by Proton Motor Fuel Cell GmbH (European Patent EP 1 868 837 B1). Other than conventional hybrid drive systems comprising only two sources of energy, namely a combustion engine and an electric motor, Proton Motor Fuel Cell’s Triple-hybrid drive system comprises three sources of energy, namely hydrogen fuel cells, batteries, and ultracapacitors to power, store and capture energy during braking of vehicle.

Like other fuel cell powered vehicle, the proton exchange membrane fuel cell in this drive system uses hydrogen to produce electric power to motor. When the vehicle is stationary, the proton exchange membrane fuel cell recharges both the lead-gel batteries and the ultracapacitors. During peak energy requirements the lead-gel batteries and ultracapacitors provide additional electric power, in parallel to the proton exchange membrane fuel cell, to the motor. During braking, energy, the regenerative braking energy, is captured in the lead-gel batteries and the ultracapacitors. 

______                          

______ 

Comparing Electric Vehicles: HEV vs. PHEV vs. BEV vs. FCEV:

Conventional hybrids:

Conventional hybrids, like the Toyota Prius, combine both a gasoline engine with an electric motor. While these vehicles have an electric motor and battery, they can’t be plugged in and recharged. Instead their batteries are charged from capturing energy when braking, using regenerative braking that converts kinetic energy into electricity. This energy is normally wasted in conventional vehicles. Without regenerative braking, cars turn excess speed into heat using brake pads.

Depending on the type of hybrid, the electric motor will work with the gasoline-powered engine to reduce gasoline use or even allow the gasoline engine to turn off altogether. Hybrid fuel-saving technologies can dramatically increase fuel economy. For example, the 2014 Honda Accord hybrid achieves a combined 47 miles per gallon (mpg) compared to a combined 30 mpg for the non-hybrid version. At 12,000 miles a year and $4/gallon gasoline, that means saving over $575 each year.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs):

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are similar to conventional hybrids in that they have both an electric motor and internal combustion engine, except PHEV batteries can be charged by plugging into an outlet. So why opt for a PHEV instead of a conventional hybrid? Well, unlike conventional hybrids, PHEVs can substitute electricity from the grid for gasoline. The 2014 Ford Fusion Energi, for example, can go about 21 miles by only using electricity, and the 2014 Chevy Volt can go around 38 miles before the gasoline motor kicks in.

Though this doesn’t sound like a far ways, many people drive less than this distance each day. In a recent UCS survey, 54 percent of respondents reported driving less than 40 miles a day. Moreover, using electricity instead of gasoline is cheaper and cleaner for most people. The average cost to drive 100 miles on electricity is only $3.45 compared to $13.52 for driving 100 miles on gasoline.

Battery electric vehicles (BEVs):

Battery electric vehicles run exclusively on electricity via on-board batteries that are charged by plugging into an outlet or charging station. The Nissan LEAF, Fiat 500e, and Tesla Model S fall into this category, though there are many other BEVs on the market. These vehicles have no gasoline engine, longer electric driving ranges compared to PHEVs, and never produce tailpipe emissions (though there are emissions associated with charging these vehicles, which UCS has previously examined).

The BEVs on the market today generally go around 60 to 80 miles per charge, though a Tesla can travel over 200 miles on a single charge. A recent UCS survey found that a BEV range of 60 miles would fit the weekday driving needs of 69 percent of U.S. drivers. As battery technology continues to improve, BEV ranges will extend even further, offering an even larger number of drivers the option of driving exclusively on electricity.

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs):

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV) use an electric-only motor like a BEV, but stores energy quite a bit differently. Instead of recharging a battery, FCEVs store hydrogen gas in a tank. The fuel cell in FCEVs combines hydrogen with oxygen from the air to produce electricity. The electricity from the fuel cell then powers an electric motor, which powers the vehicle just like a BEV. And like BEVs, there is no smog-forming or climate-changing pollution from FCEVs tailpipe – the only byproduct is water. Unlike BEVs or PHEVs, however, there is no need to plug-in FCEVs, since their fuel cells are recharged by refilling with hydrogen, which can take as little as 5 minutes at a filling station.

But just as producing electricity to charge a plug-in vehicle creates emissions, producing hydrogen also generates emissions. Hydrogen made today from natural gas produces about the same total emissions per mile as charging a plug-in vehicle with electricity generated from natural gas. But when made from renewable sources like biomass or solar power, hydrogen can be nearly emission free.

Moreover, hydrogen fueling infrastructure, like public electric vehicle charging stations, is still ramping up – and mostly available in California. With increased state and federal policies aimed at helping get more of these vehicles on the road, FCEVs can become a large part of our future transportation systems.

______

Table below compares the different vehicle types in terms of driving component, energy source, features, and limitations.

______

Comparing major available EVs: Advantages & Disadvantages:   

TECHNOLOGY	ADVANTAGES	DISADVANTAGES
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)	Reduced fuel consumption and emissions; Possibility to recover energy from regenerative braking	Higher initial cost; Component availability; Build complexity involving two power trains (Transmission Energy loss).
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)	Important grid connection potential; Reduced fuel consumption and emissions; Optimized performance; Possibility to recover energy from regenerative braking; 100% zero-emission capability.	Higher initial cost; Build complexity involving two power trains (Transmission Energy loss); Component availability; High cost of batteries and battery replacement; Added weight to be taken in consideration.
Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)	Use of cleaner electric energy; Zero emissions Vehicle; battery recharging (Overnight or equipped Parking); Possibility to recover energy from regenerative braking; Lower operational costs; Quiet operation.	Short distance range; Battery technology still to be improved; Public recharging infrastructure to be improved.
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV)	Zero emissions (Water & Heat only); Very high energy efficiency compared to conventional ICE; Recovered energy from regenerative braking; No dependence on petroleum	Higher initial cost; Hydrogen generation and onboard storage security problems; Availability and affordability of hydrogen refueling stations (infrastructure to be improved); Standards development in progress; Scalability for mass manufacture;
Solar Electric Vehicle (SEV)	Able to utilize their full power at any speed, do not require any expense for running, quite, requires very low maintenance, no harmful emissions.	Don’t have speed or power that regular cars have, can operate only in sun (unless batt. assisted), A good solar powered car is expensive.

______

______

Section-9

Basic technology of EV:

_

Technical Overview of Electric Vehicles:

Electric vehicles are divided into two general categories: battery-electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles, which represent the design orientation of the vehicles’ power system. Battery-electric vehicles, or BEVs, are vehicles that use secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries, normally called storage batteries) as their only source of energy. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) has both a combustion engine and an electric motor. Each one is capable of powering the vehicle on its own. PHEV batteries can be charged by an outside electric power source, by the internal combustion engine, or through regenerative braking. Each type of EV has its own operating characteristics and preferred design practices, as well as advantages and disadvantages.

A primary technical advantage with EVs of either category is the inherent bi-directionality of their energy/work loop.  An EV power train can convert energy stores into vehicle motion, just like a conventional vehicle, and it can also reverse direction and convert vehicle motion (kinetic energy) back into energy stores through regenerative braking. In contrast, combustion engine vehicles cannot reverse the direction of the onboard energy flow and convert vehicle motion back into fuel. The significance of regeneration becomes apparent when one considers that approximately 60 percent of the total energy spent in urban driving goes to overcoming the effects of inertia, and theoretically, up to half of this energy can be reclaimed on deceleration.

Other technical advantages center on the superiority of the EV’s electro-mechanical power train. In comparison to the internal combustion engine, an electric motor is a relatively simple and far more efficient machine. Moving parts consist primarily of the armature (dc motors) or rotor (ac motors) and bearings, and motoring efficiency is typical on the order of 70- to 85-percent. In addition, electric motor torque characteristics are much more suited to the torque demand curve of a vehicle.

A vehicle needs high torque at low speeds for acceleration, then demands less torque as cruising speed is approached. An electric motor develops maximum torque at low rpm, then torque declines with speed, mostly in step with a vehicle’s natural demand. In contrast, an ICE develops very little torque at low rpm, and must accelerate through nearly three-quarters of its rpm band before it can deliver maximum torque. A multi-ratio transmission is therefore necessary in order to correctly match ICE output characteristics to the vehicle demand curve. Due to the more favorable output curve of the electric motor, an EV drive train usually does not require more than two gear ratios, and often needs only one. Moreover, a reverse gear is unnecessary because the rotational direction of the motor itself can be reversed simply by reversing the electrical input polarity. These advantages lead to a far less complex and more efficient power train, at least on a mechanical level.

The mechanical simplicity of the EV power train is somewhat offset by increased complexity on an electronic level. Electrical power is delivered to the wall outlet in the form of alternating current, and must be converted into direct current in order to charge EV batteries. In the case of EVs powered by dc motors, electricity from the battery must then be “chopped” into small bursts of variable duty cycle in order to control the speed and torque of the motor. With EVs using ac motors, the direct current from the battery must undergo complex power condition in order to deliver alternating current and provide control over motoring output. Power conditioning systems have traditionally been large and expensive devices. In recent years, however, electronic control technology has improved and costs and size have declined. With increased demand, the technology should continue to improve, and economies of scale will come into play.

The main disadvantage of BEVs is limited energy stores due to the limitations of the secondary battery, and PHEVs tend to be plagued by increased mass and costs due to the increased complexity of the power system.

_____

Basics of Electromobility:

The term electric motor/generator is used instead of alternator, electric motor and starter. In principle, any electric motor can also be used as an alternator.

When the electric motor/generator is driven mechanically, it supplies electrical energy as an alternator.

When the electric motor/generator is supplied with an electrical current, it works as a drive.

Electric motors/generators used for propulsion are water-cooled. Air cooling would also be possible but complex due to space and the amount of heat generated.

In full hybrid vehicles (HEV), the electric motor/generator also functions as the starter for the combustion engine.

Three-phase synchronous motors are often used as the electric motor/generator. A three-phase motor is powered by a three-phase alternating current. It works with three coils that are arranged in a circle around the rotor to form the stator and are each electrically connected to one of the three phases. Several pairs of permanent magnets are located on the rotor in this synchronous motor. Since the three coils are supplied sequentially with a current, together they generate a rotating electrical field that causes the rotor to rotate when the electric motor/generator is used to drive the vehicle. When used as an alternator, the movement of the rotor induces a three-phase alternating voltage in the coils that is transformed into a direct voltage for the high-voltage battery in the power electronics.

Normally so-called “synchronous motors” are used in vehicles. In this context, the term “synchronous” means “running in synchronism” and refers to the ratio of the rotation speed of the energised field in the stator coils to the rotation speed of the rotor with its permanent magnets. The advantage of synchronous motors compared with asynchronous motors is the more precise control of the motor in automobile applications.

Strengths of the Electric Motor/Generator:

The electric motor/generator is very environmentally compatible thanks to the lack of noise and harmful emissions. The electric motor/generator responds quickly, has good acceleration figures and a high level of efficiency. In contrast to combustion engines, electric motors supply their nominal power steplessly over a broad rpm range.

The maximum torque is available even at low rpm (i.e., when pulling away) and only drops once the motor reaches very high speeds. As a result, neither a manually operated transmission, an automatic transmission nor a clutch are required.

The direction of rotation of an electric drive motor is freely selectable. It can turn clockwise to move the vehicle forwards and counter-clockwise to reverse it.

______

Inner parts of an EV:

EVs have 90% less moving parts that an ICE (Internal Combustion Engine) car. Here’s a breakdown of the parts that keep an EV moving:

-1. Electric Engine/Motor – Provides power to rotate the wheels. It can be DC/AC type; however, AC motors are more common.

-2. Inverter – Converts the electric current in the form of Direct Current (DC) into Alternating Current (AC)

-3. Drivetrain – EVs have a single-speed transmission which sends power from the motor to the wheels.

-4. Batteries – Store the electricity required to run an EV. The higher the kWh of the battery, the higher the range.

-5. Charging – Plug into an outlet or EV charging point to charge your battery.

_____

Understanding EV Components: 

Electric Vehicles (EV) are increasingly becoming a part of modern life; its tremendous fuel economy, eco-friendliness, and smooth driving feel have appealed to many conscious modern consumers. EVs are quite different from traditional vehicles with internal combustion engines. From the basic mechanism and operating principle to methods of usage and maintenance, the two categories diverge in many, many aspects. Understanding those differences, ideally, would be the first step of a consumer beginning to gauge his or her interest in EVs.

As is well known, EVs use the electricity saved in the battery to cycle the motor and generate the power necessary for driving―this is the biggest difference to internal combustion vehicles, in which the engine exhausts fossil fuel to generate that power. As such, EVs have no need for the engine and transmission, the two of the most crucial components for internal combustion vehicles. Instead, EVs carry several components for electric power: the motor, the battery, the on-board charger, and the Electric Power Control Unit(EPCU). All are essential components to achieve the conversion of the battery’s electricity into the kinetic force that drives the EV forward.

The Engine of a conventional IC Engine Car is replaced by an electrical Motor and the fuel tank is replaced by the Battery Pack. Of all the components only the Battery Pack and Motor alone contributes to about more than 50% of the total cars weight and the price.  As you can see in the figure below, the Battery Pack, Controller, Motor and the Transmission unit forms the major components:

_  

-1. Motor: 

The motor converts electric energy into kinetic energy that moves the wheels. The advantage of using the motor instead of an engine is numerous: first, the noise and the vibration we typically associate with cars are minimized. Many passengers riding EVs for the first time are surprised by just how quiet and comfortable the ride feels. Moreover, the EV powertrain is smaller than the engine, thus providing lots of additional space for efficient vehicle design―like expanded cabin space or storage.

The motor is also in part an electric generator―it converts the kinetic energy generated while in neutral gear (e.g., while the car is going downhill) into electric energy saved to the battery. The same energy-saving idea applies when the car is reducing its speed, culminating in the so-called “regenerative braking system.” Some of the EVs are equipped with a mechanism that can control the levels of regenerative braking via paddle shifters on the steering wheel, which not only improves the fuel economy but also adds an interesting and fun element to driving.  

_

How Electric Motor work in EV:  

It starts with the battery in the car that is connected to the motor. Electrical energy is supplied to the stator via the car’s battery. The coils within the stator (made from the conducting wire) are arranged on opposite sides of the stator core and act as magnets in a way. Therefore, when the electrical energy from the car battery is supplied to the motor, the coils create rotating magnetic fields that pull the conducting rods on the outside of the rotor along behind it. The spinning rotor is what creates the mechanical energy need to turn the gears of the car, which, in turn, rotate the tires. 

Now, in a typical car that isn’t electric, there is both an engine and an alternator. The battery powers the engine, which powers the gears and wheels. The rotation of the wheels is what then powers the alternator in the car and the alternator recharges the battery. This is why you are told to drive your car around for a period of time after being jumped – the battery needs to be recharged in order to function appropriately.

In an electric car, there is no alternator. So, how does the battery recharge then? While there is no separate alternator, the motor in an electric car acts as both the motor and an alternator. That’s one of the reasons why electric cars are so unique. As referenced above, the battery starts the motor, which supplies energy to the gears, which rotates the tires. This process happens when your foot is on the accelerator – the rotor gets pulled along by the rotating magnetic field, requiring more torque. But what happens when you let off of the accelerator?

When your foot comes off the accelerator, the rotating magnetic field stops and the rotor starts spinning faster (as opposed to being pulled along by the magnetic field). When the rotor spins faster than the rotating magnetic field in the stator, this action recharges the battery, acting as an alternator.

_

Types of Electric Motors:

There are various types of motors that are used in electric vehicles nowadays:

-1.  DC Series Motor

 It was a widely used motor back in the 1990s. This motor is capable of producing high initial torque. The easy speed control and sudden load increase bearing capacity make these motors a good choice. But the high maintenance due to the brushes and commutators is a major drawback in the DC series motor which are also known as Brushed DC Motors. These motors are still in use by the Indian railways.

-2. Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)

These motors are the technically advanced versions of DC series motors. They don’t use brushes and commutators. Instead, permanent magnets are used. BLDCs have high starting torque, high efficiency and low maintenance. BLDCs are widely used these days either as the hub motor or belt-driven.

-3. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)

It is very similar in construction to the BLDCs. But the major difference is in the back emf. PMSM has a sinusoidal back emf whereas BLDC has trapezoidal one. They have a high power rating and can be used in high-performance applications such as sports cars, buses etc. For e.g., Nissan Leaf uses a PMSM for propulsion.

-4. Three Phase Induction Motor

Induction motors don’t have a high starting torque.  It still has very high efficiency and can withstand rugged environmental conditions. Tesla Model S uses this type of motor.

But where does the electric motor get its power from?

The answer is simple, from a battery known as traction battery. All batteries (whether in an EV or a smartphone) are DC.

The main function of motor is to convert supplied electric energy current in to mechanical energy. Brushless DC motor (BLDC) have been much focused for many motor manufacturers. These are more effective in term of system cost, size, higher in efficiency, excellent controllability and also power saving than other motor. It has only two basic main parts rotor and stator. The rotor is rotating part which carry permanent magnet and stator is stationary part and containing stator winding. The structure of stator is similar to the induction motor. It is made up of steel lamination with axially cut for winding.  

Figure below shows BLDC Motor

There are several variations of the permanent magnet motor which offer simpler drive schemes and/or lower cost including the brushless DC electric motor. More recent electric vehicles have made use of a variety of AC motor types, as these are simpler to build and have no brushes that can wear out. These are usually induction motors or brushless AC electric motors which use permanent magnets. 

Once electric power is supplied to the motor (from the controller), the magnetic field interaction inside the motor will turn the drive shaft and ultimately the vehicle’s wheels.

_

-2. Reducer:

The reducer is a kind of transmission in that it serves to effectively convey the motor’s power to the wheel. But it carries the special name―reducer―for a reason: the motor has a far higher RPM than that of an internal combustion engine, so whereas transmissions change the engine RPM to match the driving circumstance, the reducer must always reduce the RPM to an appropriate level. A reducer adjusts the number of revolutions by the motor and conveys those revolutions to the tires (drive shaft). The function of the reducer is equivalent to a conventional transmission. With the reduced RPM, the EV powertrain can take advantage of the resulting higher torque.

_

-3. Battery (vide infra):

The battery stores electrical energy and is the equivalent of a fuel tank in an internal combustion engine. The maximum driving distance of an EV is often determined by the battery capacity―the higher the capacity, the higher the driving distance. In that light, increasing the capacity may seem an obvious choice, since high driving distance reduces the annoying need for frequent stops at charging stations. But the choice actually isn’t so obvious, because the battery’s size and weight also have large implications on vehicle performance. The larger and heavier battery takes away from cabin/storage space and worsens the energy efficiency and fuel economy. The best way to optimize performance, then, is to maximize the battery’s energy density―that is, having a small, lightweight battery that stores as much electric energy as possible.

Thanks to the recent advancements in battery technology, the more recent EVs boast significant upgrades over older models in terms of battery density and driving distance. The Kia Soul Booster EV, for example, is equipped with a 64kWh lithium-ion battery that lasts for the max distance of 386 km (according to Korean certification standards). The battery life also saw significant improvements: assuming a normal pattern of usage, the Soul Booster EV’s battery can last through the entire life cycle of the vehicle. To explain in greater detail, understand first that lithium-ion batteries on EVs show battery life that varies with the charging pattern. If the charging pattern is such that the entire battery is exhausted and recharged to full, the battery can be used for 500 charges; if the battery is used to half (50%) and recharged, 2500 charges; if one-fifth of the battery is used (20%) and recharged, 4,000 charges. Meaning, if the Soul Booster EV is driven for 77 kilometers a day (equivalent to the 20% of the max driving distance) and recharged every night, the battery can last for 4,000 days (11 years). 

_

-4. Battery Management System (BMS):

The Battery Management System (BMS) manages the battery’s many cells so that they can operate as if they are a single entity. The EV’s battery consists of as little as tens to as many as thousands of mini-cells, and each cell needs to be in a similar condition to the others in order to optimize the battery’s durability and performance. Most often, the BMS is built into the battery’s body, though sometimes it is incorporated into the Electric Power Control Unit (EPCU). The BMS mainly oversees the cell’s charge/discharge status, but when it sees a malfunctioning cell, it automatically adjusts the power status of the cell(on/off) through a relay mechanism (the conditional mechanism for opening/closing other circuits).

_

-5. Battery Heating/Cooling System:

In lower temperatures, the battery sees a decrease in both charging capacity and speed. The battery heater exists to keep the battery within the ideal temperature range, preventing seasonal performance decreases and maintaining the max driving distance. The system functions while charging as well, ensuring the efficiency of the charge. Battery cooling system is discussed later on in the article.  

_

-6. On-board Charger (OBC):

The On-board Charger (OBC) is used to convert Alternating Current(AC) from slow chargers or portable chargers used on home outlets into Direct Current(DC). This may make the OBC look similar to the traditional inverter, but they differ crucially in function; the OBC is for charging, and the inverter is for acceleration/deceleration. Incidentally, the OBC is not needed in fast-charging, since fast chargers already supply the electricity in direct current.

_

-7. Electric Power Control Unit (EPCU):

The Electric Power Control Unit (EPCU) is an efficient integration of nearly all devices that control the flow of the electric power in the vehicle. It consists of the inverter, the Low voltage DC-DC Converter (LDC), and the Vehicle Control Unit (VCU).

-Inverter

The inverter converts the battery’s DC into AC, which then is used to control the motor speed. The device is responsible for executing acceleration and deceleration, so it serves a crucial part in maximizing the EV’s drivability.

-Low voltage DC-DC Converter

The LDC converts the high voltage electricity from the EV’s high-voltage battery into low-voltage(12V) and supplies it to the vehicle’s various electronic systems. All electronic systems in the EV use electricity in low voltage, so the high voltage in the battery must be converted first to be useful for these systems.

-Vehicle Control Unit

As the control tower of all electric power control systems in the vehicle, The VCU is arguably the most important component of the EPCU. It oversees nearly all the vehicle’s power control mechanisms, including the motor control, regenerative braking control, A/C load management, and power supply for the electronic systems.

_____

Powertrain of EV:

Powertrains along with battery are the most important components of an electric vehicle. The powertrain consists of electric motor, the controller, and transmission. Some key attributes in selecting appropriate powertrains include:

• Vehicle weight and use patterns: The power requirement of the motor depends upon the weight of the vehicle along with its payload, the speed-range at which the vehicle has to be driven, gradeability that it has to handle and the acceleration that the vehicle needs. Electric motors can provide high power to weight ratios, and batteries can be designed to supply the large currents to support these motors. Smaller vehicles like two-wheelers and three-wheelers will use motors with small kilowatt rating, cars will use higher-power motors. The buses and trucks may use even higher power motors.

The power of a vehicle’s electric motor, as in other vehicles, is measured in kilowatts (kW). 100 kW is roughly equal to 134 horsepower, but electric motors can deliver their maximum torque over a wide RPM range. This means that the performance of a vehicle with a 100 kW electric motor exceeds that of a vehicle with a 100 kW internal combustion engine, which can only deliver its maximum torque within a limited range of engine speed. Although some electric vehicles have very small motors, 15 kW (20 hp) or less and therefore have modest acceleration, many electric cars have large motors and brisk acceleration. In addition, the relatively constant torque of an electric motor, even at very low speeds tends to increase the acceleration performance of an electric vehicle relative to that of the same rated motor power internal combustion engine.

• The efficiency of the motor: Higher the energy efficiency, lower is the electric power consumed and lower is the battery-size required for a specific range.
• Energy losses outside the powertrain: While many kinds of losses in motors and controllers exist and need to be minimized, energy lost to braking is a particularly large and addressable loss. Motors should provide regenerative energy to the maximum extent, such that braking-energy is converted to electricity and recharges the batteries.

Electric vehicles can also use a direct motor-to-wheel configuration which increases the amount of available power. Having multiple motors connected directly to the wheels allows for each of the wheels to be used for both propulsion and as braking systems, thereby increasing traction. In some cases, the motor can be housed directly in the wheel, such as in the Whispering Wheel design, which lowers the vehicle’s center of gravity and reduces the number of moving parts. When not fitted with an axle, differential, or transmission, electric vehicles have less drivetrain rotational inertia. When the foot is lifted from the accelerator of an ICE, engine braking causes the car to slow. An EV would coast under these conditions, and applying mild regenerative braking instead provides a more familiar response.

_____

Most of the BEV architecture have the powertrain on the front axle and the high voltage battery in the floor, between the front and rear axle. This configuration gives plenty of volume for the passenger area and boot/trunk. The high voltage battery, being the heaviest electric component of the vehicle, is positioned very low, in the body floor. This give another advantage, a very low center of gravity, which improves the overall stability of the vehicle.

High performance BEVs, like Tesla Model S, have two electric motors for traction, one on the front axle, the second on the rear axle. Both motors have their own power electronics controllers. This configuration gives all-wheel drive (AWD) capabilities as well as very good performance in terms of acceleration and driving dynamics (torque vectoring).

Very high performance BEVs, like Rimac Concept_One, takes performance and driving dynamics to an extreme level. The powertrain consists of 4 motors in total, one for each wheel. Each motor has its own gearbox, in the front there are single-speed gearboxes while in the rear there are two-speed gearboxes with carbon fiber clutches. The high voltage battery is displaced in a “T” shape, between the front and rear axles.

The energy storage component in a pure electric vehicle is the high voltage (HV) battery. The nominal voltage is, in most of the cases, between 360 and 450 V. A BEV has also a low voltage auxiliary battery, the usual 12 V battery, which is used as a power supply for the auxiliary equipment (lightning, multimedia, etc.).

The battery is the key component of the EVs because:

-1.  the range of the vehicle depends almost entirely on the EV battery

-2.  it is the heaviest electrical component

-3.  it is the most expensive electrical component

There are different types of high voltage batteries, the chemistry being the main distinct factor. The most common HV batteries for BEV are the lithium-ion batteries.

The torque is provided by an electric machine. It’s more appropriate to call them electric machines instead of motors because they can also generate electrical energy during vehicle braking. This mechanism is called energy recuperation/regeneration. When the vehicle accelerates, the electric machine takes electrical energy from the EV battery and produces torque. This is the motor phase. When the vehicle is braking, the kinetic energy of the vehicle is used by the electric machine to produce electrical energy. This is the generator phase.

The main difference between the electric machines consists in the way they produce torque (permanent magnetic field from magnets, induced magnetic field in the rotor windings or magnetically conductive path in the rotor aligned with the stator field).

The power electronics control module has several subsystems, each responsible with a control function. When the vehicle is charged from a home electrical grid (e.g., 220 V), the rectifier converts the alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC), which is fed into the high voltage battery. The DC-DC converter is responsible with the lowering of the high voltage (e.g., 400 V) to the low voltage network (12 V).

The inverter controls the electric machine speed and torque by converting the direct current from the battery into alternating 3-phase current for the electric machine. When the vehicle is in energy recuperation phase (braking) the inverter is doing the opposite conversion, from 3-phase AC to DC.

_____

Working principle of Electric Vehicle (EV):

The figure above shows the simple construction of electric vehicle. It consists of battery, motor controller, motor which is connected to the transmission system. Here, battery is the energy source which is charged by taking electric current from the grid. Electricity is transferred from a battery to a controller. The controller then sends the electricity to the electric motors when needed. Controller control the flow of energy from energy source to the motor. Motor transmits the power to the wheels of the vehicle by the use of transmission system.  The accelerator is connected to a variable switch which tells the controller how much power to send to the electric motors. Power output can vary from zero to full as needed. 

_

Motor controller:

Motor controller helps to control various properties of motor by controlling current and voltage applied to motor. When accelerating pedal is press, this linked variable resistor type controller gives signal to the motor controller to adjust speed as per our needs. The motor controller has no power when vehicle is at rest position.

Figure below shows Motor controller:

The motor controller receives a signal from potentiometers linked to the accelerator pedal, and it uses this signal to determine how much electric power is needed. This DC power is supplied by the battery pack, and the controller regulates the power to the motor, supplying either variable pulse width DC or variable frequency variable amplitude AC, depending on the motor type. The controller also handles regenerative braking, whereby electrical power is gathered as the vehicle slows down and this power recharges the battery. In addition to power and motor management, the controller performs various safety checks such as anomaly detection, functional safety tests and failure diagnostics. 

_

Example:

A simple DC controller connected to the batteries and the DC motor. If the driver floors the accelerator pedal, the controller delivers the full 96 volts from the batteries to the motor. If the driver take his/her foot off the accelerator, the controller delivers zero volts to the motor. For any setting in between, the controller “chops” the 96 volts thousands of times per second to create an average voltage somewhere between 0 and 96 volts.

The controller takes power from the batteries and delivers it to the motor. The accelerator pedal hooks to a pair of potentiometers (variable resistors), and these potentiometers provide the signal that tells the controller how much power it is supposed to deliver. The controller can deliver zero power (when the car is stopped), full power (when the driver floors the accelerator pedal), or any power level in between.

Another example:

Here AC controller takes in 300 volts DC from the battery pack. It converts it into a maximum of 240 volts AC, three-phase, to send to the motor. It does this using very large transistors that rapidly turn the batteries’ voltage on and off to create a sine wave. When you push on the gas pedal, a cable from the pedal connects to two potentiometers. The potentiometers hook to the gas pedal and send a signal to the controller. The signal from the potentiometers tells the controller how much power to deliver to the electric car’s motor. There are two potentiometers for safety’s sake. The controller reads both potentiometers and makes sure that their signals are equal. If they are not, then the controller does not operate. This arrangement guards against a situation where a potentiometer fails in the full-on position.

Most controllers pulse the power more than 15,000 times per second, in order to keep the pulsation outside the range of human hearing. The pulsed current causes the motor housing to vibrate at that frequency, so by pulsing at more than 15,000 cycles per second, the controller and motor are silent to human ears.

______

Instant torque of EV:

There’s not a great deal you can do to control the output from a car engine because it’s a chemical machine, driven by an essentially simple chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen that produces useful mechanical power. In that respect, an internal combustion engine is just like the external combustion engine you’ll find on something like a steam engine. If you want more power, you need to burn more fuel more quickly—a basic law of physics called the law of conservation of energy tells us that—which is why operating a car’s accelerator is informally called “stepping on the gas”: burning gas faster makes more power and ultimately delivers more speed. Apart from the accelerator (supplying more or less fuel), the other two key controls of a conventional car engine are the gears (transforming the power coming from the engine so the wheels turn quickly with low force or slowly with high force) and the clutch (briefly engaging or disengaging the engine’s power from the gearbox altogether). And we need the gears and the clutch because of basic limitations in how an engine works—as a machine that enjoys spinning around thousands of times a minute, however fast you’re driving (the engine keeps turning, burning fuel and costing money, even if you’re stopped at a traffic signal).

The motor in an electric car is very different: up to a point, it has no “preference” whether it spins fast or slow—it’s pretty good at delivering the same torque at any moderate speed. Starting off, you’d have to turned down low to make the car move slowly (by feeding a relatively small electric current to the motor inside it); you could go faster simply by turning up the current to make the motor spin more quickly. There’s no clutch in EV and (usually) no gearbox either: the electric motor drives the EV wheels directly, and does so equally well whether the train is going fast or slow.

_____

Transmission system:  

In theory, an electric motor can drive a full-sized electric car without the clumsy old gearbox and transmission you’d use in a conventional gasoline-engine car. In practice, electric cars are clearly more complex.  

When a car corners, its two outside wheels are traveling around a curve of bigger radius than its two inside wheels but in exactly the same time, which means they have to spin slightly faster. That’s why cars need complex transmissions with speed-adjusting gears called differentials that allow one pair of wheels to go at a slightly different speed—faster on the outside of a curve, slower on the inside—than the other.

The same happens in an electric car when it goes around a corner, and that rules out any kind of simple transmission (for example, a single electric motor driving the two back wheels from a common axle). One solution is to have a front-located electric motor driving the same kind of transmission as an ordinary gasoline car, using a driveshaft (propeller shaft) and differential in the usual way. Another is to do away with the driveshaft and have a motor, gearbox, and differential unit between two of the wheels (either front or rear) and driving them both. A third option is to have two front or rear motors (with or without gearboxes), each driving one wheel independently. The final option is to use two or four hub motors (in-wheel motors), which are motors built into the wheels themselves. That raises a different technical issue: how to build a motor that’s lightweight, compact, and still powerful enough to drive a car (although if there are four hub motors, you need to generate only a quarter of the total power with each one).

_

EV has single speed transmission: 

A significant difference between conventional vehicles and EVs is the drivetrain. Simply put, the majority of EVs do not have multi-speed transmissions. Instead, a single-speed transmission regulates the electric motor.

For those who started driving with a manual should be fairly familiar with the concept of changing gears. Whether the goal is to quickly accelerate or efficiently reach cruising speed, internal combustion engines only generate efficient power at certain RPM ranges. Therefore, adequate distribution of power is required through gear shifts at the right RPM range. Generally, torque output is highest during low gears to move the car from a standstill. As the vehicle gains momentum, torque gradually decreases. For these reasons, gear ratios are carefully calculated and set by manufacturers in accordance to engine output to maximize efficient power at each gear.

ICE engines, with rare exception, only make good power and/or efficiency in relatively narrow RPM ranges. Depending on the goal (power or efficiency), the transmission needs to shift to the next gear at the right time to keep the engine in the right range of RPMs. The ranges in which they can run at all are wider, but are still not wide enough for automotive applications. For instance, go much below 1,000 RPM, and a gas engine will stall. Go past redline (where the red is on a tachometer), and the engine will start damaging itself in various ways. For this reason, most modern cars have a “rev limiter” safety feature that cuts fuel and/or spark to stop the engine from going faster and self-destructing.

Finally, there’s the tradeoff between vehicle speed and torque multiplication. In “low” gears, the gearing has the same effect as having a longer lever: more torque. This allows a vehicle to have an acceptable amount of “oomph” when you first start. However, if you stay in that low gear, the engine will be going too fast before you can get up to an acceptable speed. To be able to go faster, you need to switch to a different gear that won’t turn the engine so fast, but at the cost of losing that initial torque. You’re already moving, so that doesn’t matter as much.

For the highway, there are even “overdrive” gears that allow the engine to turn more slowly than the wheels for better efficiency and less wear.

This is not the case in electric cars. Electric cars don’t require multi-speed transmissions because of the so-called “engine” in an electric car, an electric motor. While internal combustion engines require multiple gears with different ratios for power output, electric motors produce a consistent amount of torque at any given RPM within a specific range. Electric motors deliver power instantly, meaning, the process of building up torque through revving as in internal combustion engines is unnecessary.

EVs can get away with not having a multi-speed transmission as electric motors have a wide operating range. At the bottom end, they can go all the way to 0 RPM without stalling. There’s no need to idle, and when you hit the skinny pedal, full power is available. At the top end, most EV motors can go beyond 10,000 RPM without damage, with some approaching 20,000 RPM at top speed. With few moving parts, they don’t fly to pieces at those speeds.

There’s a problem, though. Electric motors do not generate the same torque from zero to maximum RPM. They all put out full power until a certain speed, and then their torque begins to drop off. Efficiency is also not consistent across the full range of speeds the motor is capable of going. The speeds at which they’re most efficient can vary, but the “sweet spot” is usually around ⅓ to ½ power at 30–40 MPH (50–65 km/h).

Car manufacturers incorporate carefully calculated gear ratios to maximize efficiency for the electric motor without having to switch through gears.

Additionally, most electric motors can operate beyond 10,000RPM with ease.  Since electric motors are able to produce consistent torque across such an extensive RPM range compared to the 6,000RPM redline of many internal combustion engines, a multi-speed transmission would only create inefficiencies such as added weight and extra production costs.

A gearless or single gear design in some EVs eliminates the need for gear shifting, giving such vehicles both smoother acceleration and smoother braking. Because the torque of an electric motor is a function of current, not rotational speed, electric vehicles have a high torque over a larger range of speeds during acceleration, as compared to an internal combustion engine. As there is no delay in developing torque in an EV, EV drivers report generally high satisfaction with acceleration.  

______

Two speed EV Transmissions are coming:  

Recently, ZF announced a two-speed EV transaxle/drive unit, and around the same time, more details about the Porsche Taycan came out. For the Taycan, there was more confirmation that the vehicle will have a two-speed gearbox (at least in the rear).

A piston ICE with a 5-speed transmission can lower the RPM at a higher speed by using a transmission that allows for the gear ratio to change as the car is driven. At 80 mph a piston engine can be reduced to just 1500 or 2000 RPM while the EV without a transmission is spinning furiously and thus using more energy than at low speeds. While an EV will work at anywhere from 0 RPM to max motor speed, it will have lower power and/or less range at highway speeds if its single gear is optimized for city driving. Making this gear “taller” could help, but then the car would suffer from lower performance and efficiency in the city. To achieve the best performance, we can have a lower gear for initial acceleration and a higher gear for a high-top speed. At the end of the day, it all comes down to cost. For a cheaper vehicle that largely gets driven in the city, one gear is fine. For a performance car, or one that is going to spend more time at higher speeds, it makes sense to find ways to get at least one more gear ratio.

_______

High-Voltage solutions take over HEV/EV Designs:

It should come as no shock that the dated 12-V auto electrical systems are no longer viable in new vehicles, especially hybrid electrical vehicles (HEVs) and the new all-electric vehicles (EVs). The replacement systems use either 48-V batteries for HEVs or 400+-V batteries for EVs. These power-hungry systems rely on the higher voltages as well as switch-mode techniques that give them the efficiency necessary to make them practical.

_

Voltage levels in passenger electric vehicles: 

_

Why Higher Voltage?

Higher voltages boost efficiency. The dramatic increase in electronics designed into vehicles over the years has revealed the weaknesses of standard 12-V electrical systems. The advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) now in most new vehicles have added multiple processors and high-current sensors and actuators, in addition to other devices. Processor power has also jumped significantly, leading to added higher I2R losses in cables, connectors, and PCB connections.

For a given amount of power, higher voltages reduce the current. That means smaller wire can be used, thereby reducing cost and weight. Most new hybrid vehicles now include a 48-V system, and standard vehicles with internal combustion engines are moving in that direction.

As for EVs, all require high voltage to power the motor. Voltage levels of 200 to 800 V or more are needed to generate sufficient power to run the vehicle.

____

Power Conversion Techniques:

Batteries or ultracapacitors (UC) store energy as a DC charge. Normally they have to obtain that energy from AC lines connected to the grid, and this process can be wired or wireless. To deliver this energy to the motors, it has to be converted back again. These processes work in the reverse direction as well i.e., power being fed back to the batteries (regenerative braking) or getting supplied to grid when the vehicle in idle (V2G). Typical placement of different converters in an EV is shown in figure below along with the power flow directions. This conversion can be DC-DC or DC-AC. For all this conversion work required to fill up the energy storage of EVs and then to use them to propel the vehicle, power converters are required, and they come in different forms. A detailed description of power electronics converters is beyond the scope of this article.

Figure above shows typical placements of different converters in an EV. AC-DC converter transforms the power from grid to be stored in the storage through another stage of DC-DC conversion. Power is supplied to the DC motor from the storage through the DC-DC converter and the DC motor drives.

____

Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS): 

As you know, there are three basic types of SMPS: ac-dc or rectifier power supplies, dc-dc converters, and dc-ac inverters. EVs and HEVs use all three types.

-1. The ac-dc supply is used to charge the batteries. The trend is to put the charger in the vehicle; the on-board charger (OBC) converts the standard ac mains voltage into a dc suitable for battery charging. OBCs greatly simplify and cost-reduce or minimize the need for charging stations.

-2. The dc-dc converters are used in a variety of roles for powering the processors and other electronics such as a 48- to 12-V supply.

-3. Inverters power the ac traction motors used in EVs and HEVs. Such ac motors are used in many electric vehicles because of their greater efficiency. Variable-frequency drives provide the speed control.

Up to now, silicon power MOSFETs have been the primary switching device in most of these supplies. However, these devices have their voltage and current limitations. Beyond the roughly 4- to 6-kW level, other devices are needed. One good alternative is the silicon-carbide (SiC) MOSFET. For even higher power, the best choice is the insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT). Both types offer higher breakdown voltages and higher current capability along with the fast switching speeds required to achieve good efficiency ratings.

While SiC MOSFETs and IGBTs can handle the higher power levels demanded by EV and HEVs, they do have special gate-drive and circuit-protection needs. High drive voltages, fast switching speed, and a negative drive voltage are all essential to ensure fast turn-off.

______

AC Motor vs. DC Motor: Which one is better For EVs?

Two of the most innovative and best-performing motors to choose from are AC induction motor and DC brushless motor. Both motors share the same purpose of elevating EVs and creating a healthier planet. Due to the exceptional wide speed range of the motors, EVs have acquired an impressive capability of running with just a single-speed gearbox. The only thing that separates the motors from each other is the voltage usage.

An AC motor is actually a three-phase motor that has a speed feature of running at 240 volts with a 300 volt battery pack. Car enthusiasts and experts deem this type of motor is adaptable. Its regenerative feature can also work as a generator that brings back power to the battery of an EV.  When it comes to road performance, electric vehicles with AC motors can get a better grip at rougher terrains and run more smoothly. It also has more acceleration. Even though AC induction motors are more expensive than DC motors, they are still popular to a wider market and automobile manufacturers because it is ideal for high-performance cars. EVs with adaptable motors also last longer.

In most cases, a DC motor will run between 96 to 192 volts. The permanent magnet motor utilizes rare-earth elements into its magnets, which makes it unique. DC installations tend to be simpler and less expensive. A typical motor will be in the 20,000-watt to 30,000-watt range. A typical controller will be in the 40,000-watt to 60,000-watt range (for example, a 96-volt controller will deliver a maximum of 400 or 600 amps). DC motors have the nice feature that you can overdrive them (up to a factor of 10-to-1) for short periods of time. That is, a 20,000-watt motor will accept 100,000 watts for a short period of time and deliver 5 times its rated horsepower. This is great for short bursts of acceleration. The only limitation is heat build-up in the motor. Too much overdriving and the motor heats up to the point where it self-destructs. EV propulsion system requires cooling systems, not only to the electric motor but also to the battery banks in order to ensure efficient operation and maximizing the electric components and vehicle lifetime. More car companies are beginning to switch from induction motors to permanent magnet motors because it has a size and weight advantage that is more significant as automobiles are becoming relatively smaller.

One company that made a big jump in its motor usage is Tesla. A lot of people know that the famous California-based corporation applies an AC induction motor to all its model cars, but when Model 3 EV was showcased, it was discovered that they altered its motor. According to officials, the reason for the change is that it does not need an additional electricity, unlike the AC motor. They also mentioned that using the permanent magnet motor has solved their cost-minimization function.

Many car owners sometimes overlook the importance of induction motors and permanent magnet motors. The bold thing about these types of electric motors is that they could predict not just the possible car sales, but also the performance of EVs as a whole in the future.

______

Aerodynamics:

Any car uses more energy at highway speeds, because aerodynamic drag increases exponentially with speed. Above 30 or 35 mph, it uses more energy to push the wind aside than it does to move 2 tons of metal. Aerodynamics play a crucial role in determining the range of an electric car. After all, the energy used to overcome air resistance cannot be recovered – unlike with vehicle acceleration. In town, a heavy electric car is efficient because it can recover a large part of the energy, which it uses to accelerate, when running up to the next red traffic light. Regenerative braking is used to restore energy lost in braking. The situation is, however, totally different on long journeys where the rolling resistance and the inertia take second place to aerodynamic drag irrespective of the type of car. The energy required to overcome that drag is lost. That’s why clever aerodynamics measures are so important for EV for ensuring high efficiency and thus a reach suitable for long-haul routes. Various aerodynamic techniques are used in electric vehicles to reduce the drag coefficient, which reduces the required power. To make the best out of the available energy, EVs apply various aerodynamics and mass reduction techniques, lightweight materials are used to decrease the body weight as well.

_____

EV sub-systems and their interactions:

EVs can be considered as a combination of different subsystems. Each of these systems interact with each other to make the EV work, and there are multiple technologies that can be employed to operate the subsystems. In figure below, key parts of these subsystems and their contribution to the total system is demonstrated. Some of these parts have to work extensively with some of the others, whereas some have to interact very less. Whatever the case may be, it is the combined work of all these systems that make an EV operate.

Figure above shows major EV subsystems and their interactions. Some of the subsystems are very closely related while some others have moderated interactions. 

There are quite a few configurations and options to build an EV with. EVs can be solely driven with stored electrical power, some can generate this energy from an ICE, and there are also some vehicles that employ both the ICE and the electrical motors together. EVs use different types of energy storage to store their power. Though batteries are the most used ones, ultracapacitors, flywheels and fuel cells are also up and coming as potential energy storage systems (ESS).

______

______

Electric vehicle raw material availability:

Use of critical metals in EVs:

The production of electric vehicles, like a variety of other high-tech applications, necessitate the use of critical metals, including so-called rare earth elements (REE).  EV batteries are predominantly Lithium-ion batteries, (e.g., NCA, NMC), which use Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, and Graphite. The figure below illustrates the composition of a typical Li-ion cell:

Li-ion cells use a cathode (positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and electrolyte as conductor. The cathode is mainly composed of Nickel (73%), Cobalt (14%), Lithium (11%), and Aluminium (2%). The anode is usually completely made of graphite.  The electrolyte consists of Lithium salts (the most common being lithium hexafluorophosphate, LiPF6) in an organic solvent.   

Electric motors include a number of rare earth elements (REE), a group of 17 chemical elements which are despite their name not especially scarce resources but are available in only small amounts dispersed on the Earth’s crust. Most electric vehicles (with the exception of Tesla) use Neodymium Iron Boron permanent magnets (NdFeB), which are essential to produce high-performance electric motors. Such magnets contain Neodymium (Nd), Praseodymium (Pr), and Dysprosium (Dy) Rare Earth Elements.

_

Current demand for critical metals:

The expected increase in EV sales has sparked a vivid discussion regarding the availability of critical metals. However, available reserves indicate that resources of main critical metals (e.g., lithium, cobalt, graphite, and REE) are unlikely to limit increasing EV production although there could be short-term supply constraints if the market increases too quickly.

Worldwide lithium production in 2016 amounted to 35,000 tons. Data from the US geological survey estimate lithium resources worldwide at approximately 40 million tons. According to Deutsche Bank and Bloomberg, these reserves could last for an estimated 185 years, even if the market triples. 

For Cobalt, estimated reserves in the three leading countries (DRC, Australia, Cuba) amount to nearly 5 million tons; whereas today, about a little less than 45,000 tons of cobalt refined worldwide goes into EV production.

Graphite reserves are estimated at about 250 Mt, while Benchmark Intelligence estimates demand for graphite driven by anode manufacturing to reach 250000 tons in 2020. 

Likewise, known reserves for Nickel (78,000,000 tons) compared to the 2016 production (2,500,000 tons), suggest that nickel supply will not jeopardize the transition to EVs. 

REE are difficult to mine because they are rarely found in concentrations high enough to allow for profitable economic extraction. The European Commission estimates the global reserves of rare earth oxides at more than 80,000,000 tons; whereas average yearly production between 2010 and 2014 amounts to 135,650 tons. But availability varies depending on the type of rare earth: based on known geologic reserves and security of supply issues, the US Department of Energy identified a risk of supply constraints for Neodymium and Dysprosium, two main components of electric magnet rotors. In 2015, half of the global demand for REE originated from magnets built into permanent electric motors, which are used in most electric vehicles. 

_

Where do critical metals currently come from?

Most of the known reserves of Lithium are in Bolivia and Argentina (ca. 9 million tons), Chile (7,5 millions), Australia (more than 2 millions) and China (more than 7,5 millions).  Current lithium mining takes place today mostly in Australia (14,300 tons) and Chile (12,000 tons). The so-called South-American triangle has the most extensive lithium reserves – still largely untapped – and could benefit tremendously from the soaring demand for Li-ion batteries. Nickel is mostly found in laterite and sulphide deposits. The biggest producers in 2016 were the Philippine (500,000 tons), Canada (255,000 tons), and Australia (206,000 tons).  65% of worldwide cobalt production comes from the Democratic Republic of Congo, with a third of the global supply secured by Swiss company Glencore.  In 2016, China was the world’s leading consumer of cobalt, with 80% of its consumption used to manufacture batteries.  The disproportionate weight of the DRC in the worldwide cobalt production, and its political instability, could lead to supply risks if cobalt sourcing is not diversified in the future. 

The Graphite used in anodes today comes exclusively from China which also supplies about 80% of the available rare earth minerals. This lack of diversified supply is a concern and trade arrangements are therefore important to ensure availability for producers.

_

Since a battery electric vehicle uses on average four times as much copper than a conventional one (80kg), in wiring, the electric motor, as well as the battery, copper demand in vehicles could double by 2035 compared to current production. This would require new mining capacity, leading to possible timing issues given that it can take up to 30 years between finding a copper deposit and producing the metal at scale. This is expected to create sectoral opportunities linked to exploration, smelting, and refining that will require up to $1trn in new investment by mining companies. 

_

In a nutshell:  

Critical metals and rare earth minerals will not be constrained in the coming decades and won’t stop the EV transition, as some have argued. Supply of these materials will have to be closely monitored and diversified to avoid being overly dependent on imports, as is the case with oil today. To this extent, innovation will in the long term contribute to reduce the quantity of critical metals used in EVs. Once battery powered vehicle become more widespread we can expect a dedicated recycling industry to emerge, enabling the re-use of critical metals such as lithium and cobalt.

_______

_______

Section-10

Onboard energy storage systems:

Electric vehicles can have three different types of on-board energy storage systems:

-1. Electrochemical energy: Energy can be stored thanks to chemical properties. Chemicals are stored, and the reaction of these chemicals produces electricity. These electric charges can be passed through a circuit in order to produce an electrical current. Batteries are the most common chemical energy storage systems in EVs. Lithium ion batteries are currently the dominant battery system employed in EVs. They have been an attractive choice for electric vehicles because they exhibit a high energy density and a long life cycle. 

-2. Static energy: Energy may be stored as static electricity, caused by a build-up of electrons on an object. The build-up of electrons causes an imbalance of charge in the object, which can be released to create an electric current. Electrolytic capacitors are the most common form of static energy storage in an EV. Currently, electrolytic capacitors are very popular in electric cars because they can increase the driving range of an EV and increase the battery’s life span.  Graphene supercapacitors also exhibit the potential to act as the primary power source of an electric vehicle due to their short recharge times and relatively high power density when compared with the electrolytic capacitor.

-3. Kinetic energy: Energy stored due to momentum, is called kinetic energy storage. The most popular design in EVs is the flywheel. The flywheel is a disk that spins on a fixed axis, storing energy in the form of rotational momentum.

_

EVs can get the energy required to run from different sources. The criteria such sources have to satisfy are high energy density and high power density, being the most important ones. There are other characteristics that are sought after to make a perfect energy source like fast charging, long service and cycle life, less cost and maintenance. High specific energy is required from a source to provide a long driving range whereas high specific power helps to increase the acceleration. Because of the diverse characteristics that are required for the perfect source, quite a few sources or energy storage systems (ESS) come into discussion; they are also used in different combinations to provide desired power and energy requirements.

-1. Battery (vide infra)

Batteries have been the major energy source for EVs for a long time; though of course, as time has gone by, different battery technologies have been invented and adopted and this process is still going on to attain the desired performance goals.

_

-2. Ultracapacitors (UCs)

UCs have two electrodes separated by an ion-enriched liquid dielectric. When a potential is applied, the positive electrode attracts the negative ions and the negative electrode gathers the positive ones. The charges get stored physically on electrodes this way and provide a considerably high power density. As no chemical reactions take place on the electrodes, ultra- capacitors tend to have a long cycle life; but the absence of any chemical reaction also makes them low in energy density. The internal resistance is low too, making it highly efficient, but it also causes high output current if charged at a state of extremely low SOC. A UC’s terminal voltage is directly proportional to its SOC; so it can also operate all through its voltage range. Basic construction of an UC cell is shown in figure below. EVs go through start/stop conditions quite a lot, especially in urban driving situations. This makes the battery discharge rate highly changeable. The average power required from batteries is low, but during acceleration or conditions like hill-climb a high power is required in a short duration of time. The peak power required in a high performance electric vehicle can be up to sixteen times the average power. UCs fit in perfectly in such a scenario as it can provide high power for short durations. It is also fast in capturing the energy generated by regenerative braking. A combined battery-UC system negates each other’s shortcomings and provides an efficient and reliable energy system. The low cost, load leveling capability, temperature adaptability and long service life of UCs make them a likable option as well.

Figure above shows UC cell; a separator keeps the two electrodes apart.

_

-3. Fuel Cell (FC)  

Fuel cells generate electricity by electrochemical reaction. An FC has an anode (A), a cathode (C) and an electrolyte (E) between them. Fuel is introduced to the anode, gets oxidized there, the ions created travel through the electrolyte to the cathode and combine with the other reactant introduced there. The electrons produced by oxidation at the anode produce the electricity. Hydrogen is used in FCEVs because of its high energy content, and the facts it is non-polluting (producing only water as exhaust) and abundant in nature in the form of different compounds such as hydrocarbons. Hydrogen can be stored in different methods for use in EVs; commercially available FCVs like the Toyota Mirai use cylinders to store it. Figure below shows a hydrogen fuel cell. According to the material used, fuel cells can be classified into different types. 

Figure above shows Hydrogen fuel cell configuration. Hydrogen is used as the fuel which reacts with oxygen and produces water and current as products.

Fuel cells have many advantages for EV use like efficient production of electricity from fuel, noiseless operation, fast refueling, no or low emissions, durability and the ability to provide high density current output. A main drawback of this technology is the high price. Hydrogen also has lower energy density compared to petroleum derived fuel, therefore larger fuel tanks are required for FCEVs, these tanks also have to capable enough to contain the hydrogen properly and to minimize risk of any explosion in case of an accident. FC’s efficiency depends on the power it is supplying; efficiency generally decreases if more power is drawn. Voltage drop in internal resistances cause most of the losses. Response time of FCs is comparatively higher to UCs or batteries. Because of these reasons, storage like batteries or UCs is used alongside FCs. The Toyota Mirai uses batteries to power its motor and the FC is used to charge the batteries. The batteries receive the power reproduced by regenerative braking as well. This combination provides more flexibility as the batteries do not need to be charged, only the fuel for the FC has to be replenished and it takes far less time than recharging the batteries.

_

-4. Flywheel

Flywheels are used as energy storage by using the energy to spin the flywheel which keeps on spinning because of inertia. The flywheel acts as a motor during the storage stage. When the energy is needed to be recovered, the flywheel’s kinetic energy can be used to rotate a generator to produce power. Advanced flywheels can have their rotors made out of sophisticated materials like carbon composites and are placed in a vacuum chamber suspended by magnetic bearings. Flywheels offer a lot of advantages over other storage forms for EV use as they are lighter, faster and more efficient at absorbing power from regenerative braking, faster at supplying a huge amount of power in a short time when rapid acceleration is needed and can go through a lot of charge-discharge cycles over their lifetime. They are especially favored for hybrid racecars which go through a lot of abrupt braking and acceleration, which are also at much higher g-force than normal commuter cars. Storage systems like batteries or UCs cannot capture the energy generated by regenerative braking in situations like this properly. Flywheels, on the other hand, because of their fast response, have a better efficiency in similar scenarios, by making use of regenerative braking more effectively; it reduces pressure on the brake pads as well. The Porsche 911GT3R hybrid made use of this technology. Flywheels can be made with different materials, each with their own merits and demerits.

_

Currently, no single energy source can provide the ideal characteristics, i.e., high value of both power and energy density. Table below shows a relative comparison of the energy storages to demonstrate this fact. Hybrid energy storages can be used to counter this problem by employing one source for high energy density and another for high power density. Different combinations are possible to create this hybrid system. It can be a combination of battery and ultracapacitor, battery and flywheel, or fuel cell and battery.

Relative energy and power densities of different energy storage systems:   

Storage	Energy Density	Power Density
Battery	High	Low
Ultracapacitor	Low	High
Fuel cell	High	Low
Flywheel	Low	High

_ 

Table below shows the storage systems used by some current vehicles:

Storage System	Vehicles Using the System
Battery	Tesla Model S, Nissan Leaf
Fuel cell + battery	Toyota Mirai, Honda Clarity
Flywheel	Porsche 911GT3R Hybrid

 _

Table below shows different methods of recovering the energy lost during braking: 

Storage System	Energy Converter	Recovered Energy	Application
Electric storage	Electric motor/generator	~50%	BEV, HEV
Compressed gas storage	Hydraulic motor	>70%	Heavy-duty vehicles
Flywheel	Rotational kinetic energy	>70%	Formula One (F1) racing
Gravitational energy storage	Spring storage system	–	Train

_____

_____

Electric vehicle battery:    

Battery chemistry has come a long way since 1800, when Alessandro Volta first disproved the common theory that electricity could only be created by living beings. Today, electric vehicle batteries store incredible amounts of energy that can be discharged quickly, safely, and smoothly—giving electric vehicles (EVs) instant acceleration, responsive handling, and fast recharging times.

An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) (also known as a traction battery) is a battery used to power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). These batteries are usually rechargeable (secondary) batteries, and are typically lithium-ion batteries. These batteries are specifically designed for a high ampere-hour (or kilowatt-hour) capacity.

Electric vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries as they are designed to give power over sustained periods of time and are deep-cycle batteries. Batteries for electric vehicles are characterized by their relatively high power-to-weight ratio, specific energy and energy density; smaller, lighter batteries are desirable because they reduce the weight of the vehicle and therefore improve its performance. Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower specific energy, and this often impacts the maximum all-electric range of the vehicles.

The most common battery type in modern electric vehicles are lithium-ion and lithium polymer, because of their high energy density compared to their weight. Other types of rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles include lead–acid (“flooded”, deep-cycle, and valve regulated lead acid), nickel-cadmium, nickel–metal hydride, and, less commonly, zinc–air, and sodium nickel chloride (“zebra”) batteries. The amount of electricity (i.e., electric charge) stored in batteries is measured in ampere hours or in coulombs, with the total energy often measured in kilowatt-hours.

Since the late 1990s, advances in lithium-ion battery technology have been driven by demands from portable electronics, laptop computers, mobile phones, and power tools. The BEV and HEV marketplace have reaped the benefits of these advances both in performance and energy density. Unlike earlier battery chemistries, notably nickel-cadmium, lithium-ion batteries can be discharged and recharged daily and at any state of charge.

The battery pack makes up a significant cost of a BEV or a HEV. As of December 2019, the cost of electric-vehicle batteries has fallen 87% since 2010 on a per kilowatt-hour basis.  

In terms of operating costs, the price of electricity to run a BEV is a small fraction of the cost of fuel for equivalent internal combustion engines, reflecting higher energy efficiency.

_

EVs are powered by rechargeable batteries. This battery type provides a reversible chemical reaction, allowing both their discharging and charging process.

Figure above shows movement of lithium ions and electrons in a lithium-ion battery during charging and use. 

The lithium battery on the market today primarily use graphite or silicon anodes and a liquid electrolyte. A lithium anode has been the holy grail for a long time because it can store a lot of energy in a small space (i.e., it has a high energy density) and is very lightweight. Unfortunately, lithium heats up and expands during charging, causing leaked lithium ions to build up on a battery’s surface. These growths short-circuit the battery and decrease its overall life. Researchers at Stanford recently made headway on these problems by forming a protective nanosphere layer on the lithium anode that moves with the lithium as it expands and contracts.  

______

Important Battery Parameters:

There is specific information available about each battery, but two common ratings are battery voltage and capacity Ah. The nominal voltage of lead-acid batteries is 2V or 12V, while Li-Ion batteries can be in the range of 3.3-3.7V. Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries have a nominal voltage of 1.2V. Nominal capacity (Ah) rating represents the current value that can be provided by the battery in one hour. This indicates the amount of energy stored in the battery. Additional important information are battery type and the number of cells in the battery string.

In order to select the most suitable battery type for an EV application, the following battery parameters should be considered:

• Life span—The battery life cycle is influenced by different factors, such as the purpose the battery will be used for, operating conditions, and the depth of battery discharge, but you can generally estimate EV battery life as 8 years or 160,000 km (100,000 miles).
• Safety—It takes a lot of power to drive an EV, which must be managed properly. A safe operation is assured by a carefully designed battery management system (BMS).
• Cost—This is a major problem for EVs (compared to ICE vehicles) because an EV’s battery system costs as much as a small ICE vehicle.
• Performance—This depends mostly on battery operating temperature. High temperature reduces the battery’s life span, while low temperature decreases a battery’s performance.
• Specific energy—Energy density represents battery capacity in weight (Wh/kg) and the amount of energy stored per unit mass (or by volume). Since the battery system is a significant part of an EV’s weight, the specific energy value is one of the most important parameters for EV batteries. High specific energy is required in applications where a long runtime is required at moderate load.
• Specific power—Power density represents loading capability. EVs have much better torque than ICE vehicles, and therefore have better acceleration.

______

Table below shows the desired performance for EV batteries set by the U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC). 

	Parameters	Mid-Term	Long-Term
Primary goals	Energy density (C/3 discharge rate) (Wh/L) Specific energy (C/3 discharge rate) (Wh/kg) Power density (W/l) Specific power (80% DOD/30 s) (W/kg) Lifetime (year) Cycle life (80% DOD) (cycles)	135  80 (Desired: 100) 250 150 (Desired: 200) 5 600	300 200 600 400 10 1000
	Price (USD/kWh)	<150	<100
	Operating temperature (°C)	−30 to 65	−40 to 84
	Recharging time (hour)	<6	3 to 6
	Fast recharging time (40% to 80% SOC) (hour)	0.25
Secondary goals	Self-discharge (%) Efficiency (C/3 discharge, 6 h charge) (%) Maintenance	<15 (48 h) 75 No maintenance	<15 (month) 80 No maintenance
	Resistance to abuse Thermal loss	Tolerance 3.2 W/kWh	Tolerance 3.2 W/kWh

_______

_______

Automobile manufacturers have identified three types of rechargeable battery as suitable for electric car use. They are lead-acid batteries, nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries, and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries.

_

-1. Lead-Acid Batteries   

Lead-acid battery technology is mature and reliable, but is considered obsolete. Two common lead-acid battery types are the engine starter batteries and deep cycle batteries used in EVs (these days in fork lifts or golf carts). This battery type requires inspection of electrolyte level and has a short life span, at approximately three years. These batteries have poor specific energy rate (34 Wh/kg). Because they are heavy (remember, it’s made from lead) in order to provide sufficient energy, in an EV application these batteries could represent 25 to 50 percent of the vehicle’s total mass. They also have a negative environmental impact, generate harmful gases, are toxic, and contain concentrated sulfuric acid. This type of battery was used in the early EVs (e.g., General Motors EV1). Taking into consideration all the mentioned disadvantages and the new developments available in other battery types, lead-acid batteries are not used in any new EV designs.

There are at least six significant problems with current lead-acid battery technology:

-They are heavy (a typical lead-acid battery pack weighs 1,000 pounds or more).

-They are bulky (the early EV car had 50 lead-acid batteries, each measuring roughly 6″ x 8″ by 6″).

-They have a limited capacity (a typical lead-acid battery pack might hold 12 to 15 kilowatt-hours of electricity, giving a car a range of only 50 miles or so).

-They are slow to charge (typical recharge times for a lead-acid pack range between four to 10 hours for full charge, depending on the battery technology and the charger).

-They have a short life (three to four years, perhaps 200 full charge/discharge cycles).

-They are expensive (perhaps $2,000 for the battery pack in early EV car).

_

-2. NiMH Batteries

Considering the specific energy, NiMH batteries are superior to lead-acid ones in that they have double the value of 68 Wh/kg (with range of 60 to 120 Wh/kg). This feature allows for lower battery weight and reduces the space required for storing the batteries. However, this is still significantly lower compared to the Li-Ion batteries, which have a 40 percent higher value of specific energy. The main advantage of NiMH batteries is their durability. Nickel batteries are well-proven for use in EVs. Many cars with these batteries have been on the road for more than 100,000 miles and have been operating successfully for over 7 years. Basically, this is the only battery type proven to be long lasting (Li-Ion batteries promise a long life, but we’ll have to see if that’s the case after they have had years of real use).

In terms of their use with EVs, NiMH batteries’ disadvantages include low charging efficiency, self-discharge (up to 12.5 percent per day at room temperature, with deteriorating performance at higher temperature). Advantages of this type of battery include that they contain little toxic material and are recyclable. Another disadvantage of NiMH batteries is also their heat generation rate during fast charging and discharging. This requires a cooling system that consequently increases the weight of the battery, costs and limits the number of batteries that can be used. A number of legal disputes (patent encumbrance) have limited the use of NiMH batteries in EVs, shifting the focus to Li-ion technology.

_

-3. Li-Ion Batteries

Today, Li-Ion batteries are the most commonly used battery in EVs. Li-Ion batteries will take up to a 90 percent share of the EV battery market by 2025. The cathode of the traditional Li-Ion battery is made of lithium cobalt oxide and the anode involves graphite. This technology provides properties to overcome some of the shortcomings of other battery types. The Li-Ion batteries are lightweight, have a good charge cycle rate (meaning they are capable of being recharged many times), higher energy density, higher cell voltage, and a better self-discharge rate (at only 5 percent per month). An amazing specific energy rate of 140+ Wh/kg is definitely the Li-Ion battery’s main advantage. High energy density allows for a lighter battery weight, which increases an EV’s range and performance. Compared to the lead-acid batteries, the Li-Ion is one-third of the weight, is three times more powerful, and has three times the cycle life.

Li-Ion batteries have a high price, which is their biggest disadvantage. Their production costs can be 40 percent higher than nickel batteries. However, intensive research on Li-ion technology has led to decreased production costs. According to McKinsey, from 2010. to 2016, the cost of Li-Ion batteries decreased by 80 percent. Safety remains a big concern with these batteries, however, as thermal runaway can cause EVs to catch fire or explode if the battery is overcharging and the heat is not dissipated. Also, fluctuating battery charging can be dangerous. Because of this, an advanced battery management system (BMS) is required, which monitors each cell’s voltage and temperature, the state of charge (SoC) and the state of health (SoH), helping to ensure safe and reliable operation, balanced cells for long battery life and an optimized EV performance.

Despite the public perception, the metals in Li-Ion batteries: cobalt, copper, nickel and iron are considered safe for landfills or incinerators. Materials in batteries are nontoxic, including lithium carbonate (e.g., used in ovenware), cobalt oxide (e.g., used in pottery glaze), nontoxic graphite (used in pencils), and a polymer (plastic) membrane. The toxic parts of the battery are the electrolyte and lithium cobalt oxide, which are being replaced by more benign compounds. According to Kate Krebs of the U.S. National Recycling Coalition, “Lithium Ion batteries are classified by the federal (U.S.) government as nonhazardous waste and are safe for disposal in the normal municipal waste stream.” The recycling technology of Li-Ion batteries is constantly under development. Since the availability of the battery material is limited, the recycling not only makes sense environmentally, but also economically.

_

Specifications of the popular battery types used in EVs: 

Battery type	Life span (cycle)	Nominal voltage (V)	Specific energy (Wh/kg)	Specific power (W/kg)	Charging efficiency	Self-discharge rate (%/month)	Safety
Li-ion	600-3,000	3.2-3.7	100-270	250-680	80-90	3-10	Safe
Lead acid	200-300	2.0	30-50	180	50-95	5	Risky (generate harmful gases)
NiCd	1000	1.2	50-80	150	70-90	20	Risky (highly toxic)
NiMH	300-600	1.2	60-120	250-1,000	65	30	Safe

_

Let’s compare battery types on some basic parameters related to batteries.

_

Common battery types, their basic construction components, advantages and disadvantages are shown in table below:

______

______

Lithium-ion battery: 

Energy storage systems, usually batteries, are essential for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and all-electric vehicles (EVs). Most plug-in hybrids and all-electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries shown in figure below:

There are five primary lithium battery combinations for EVs:

• Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum (NCA)
• Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC)
• Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO)
• Lithium Titanate (LTO)
• Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP)

From the plethora of lithium-ion battery compositions, EV manufacturers prefer the lithium-cobalt combination. As a result, NCA and NMC batteries are the most prevalent in EVs. 

NCA batteries	NMC batteries
Offer high specific energy and power Allow EVs to travel farther	Offer a similar calibre of performance
Use less cobalt, making them less expensive More prone to overheating	Use more cobalt, making them more expensive Higher overall safety
Commonly found in Tesla EVs	Commonly found in Nissan, Chevrolet, and BMW EVs

Why Lithium-Cobalt?

When it comes to powering EVs, lithium-cobalt batteries are unmatched. Specific properties of cobalt make them stand out from the rest:

• High energy density
• Thermal stability
• High specific power
• Low self-discharge rate
• Low weight
• Recyclability

Not only do lithium-cobalt batteries allow EVs to travel farther, but they also improve safety and sustainability.

Lithium-Cobalt batteries have three key components: 

• The cathode is an electrode that carries a positive charge, and is made of lithium metal oxide combinations of cobalt, nickel, manganese, iron, and aluminum.
• The anode is an electrode that carries a negative charge, usually made of graphite.
• The electrolyte is a lithium salt in liquid or gel form, and allows the ions to flow from the cathode to the anode (and vice versa).

How it Works:

When the battery is charged, lithium ions flow via the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode, where they are stored for usage. Simultaneously, electrons pass through an external circuit and are collected in the anode through a negative current collector.

When the battery is generating an electric current (i.e., discharging), the ions flow via the electrolyte from the anode to the cathode, and the electrons reverse direction along the external circuit, powering up the EV.

The composition of the cathode largely determines battery performance. For EV batteries, this is where the lithium-cobalt combination plays a crucial role.

Electron configuration of the Lithium:

It has an atomic number of three meaning three electrons will be around its nucleus and the outmost shell has only one valence electron. During reaction this valance electron is pulled out thus given us one electron and a lithium ion with two electrons forming a lithium ion. The electron will flow as current through the outer terminals of the battery and the lithium ion will flow though the electrolyte (separator) during the redox reaction.

______

The most significant difference between lithium-ion and lithium-polymer batteries is the chemical electrolyte between their positive and negative electrodes.

Lithium ion batteries have high energy density and cost less than lithium polymer. They are essentially a group of very rigid electricity generating compartments, which consists of three pieces: a positive electrode; a negative electrode; and an electrolyte, or liquid chemical compound between them. Most lithium-ion batteries, unlike more traditional ones, also include an electronic controller, which regulates power and discharge flows so your battery doesn’t overheat or explode.

Lithium polymer batteries are light weight and have improved safety. However their cost is high (30% average) as compared to lithium ion. Also the energy density of Li-Polymer battery compared to Li-Ion Batteries is quite less. In Li-Po batteries it isn’t a liquid. Instead, Li-Po technology uses one of three forms: a dry solid, which was largely phased out during the prototype years of lithium polymer batteries; a porous chemical compound; or, a gel-like electrolyte. The most popular among these is the last one, which is the type of battery you’ll find in newer laptop computers and electric cars. The catch is that plenty of companies are not actually selling you a true Li-Po battery, instead it’s a lithium-ion polymer battery, or a Li-ion in a more flexible casing. Lithium-polymer batteries are generally robust and flexible, especially when it comes to the size and shape of their build. They have an extremely low profile, and have a lower chance of suffering from leaking electrolyte. But they are significantly more costly to manufacture, and they do not they have the same energy density nor lifespan as a lithium-ion.

______

The first think you should know about batteries in EV is that, unlike your mobile phone which has only one battery EV’s are powered by hundreds if not thousands of batteries joined together as a pack. To give you an idea the Tesla has 7000 batteries and the Chevrolet spark has 600 batteries inside them. The complete battery arrangement consists of the Cell, Battery Module and Battery Pack.

Cell

The cell refers to a single battery. There many different sizes and shapes for a cell based on the chemistry. Most commonly used chemistry is the Lead-Acid Batteries and Lithium Batteries. These batteries are available in many different shapes like cylindrical, Coin, Prismatic and Flat type. The voltage rating of the cells (per cell) will be anywhere from 3.7V for a lithium batteries and a maximum of 12V for Lead-Acid batteries. But, as you might have guessed this voltage is not enough to run an electric car. The Tesla for example has a battery pack voltage of 356 Voltas and even for a normal electric bi-cycle we need a minimum of 36V, so how do we get this higher voltage from lithium cells that are only 3.7V?

Battery Module

So to get the higher voltage from 3.7V lithium cells, battery packs are used which are formed by combining more than one battery together.  When two batteries are connected in series their voltage ratings is added and when two batteries are connected in parallel their Ah rating is added. For example assume we have 3.7V 2000mAh Lithium batteries. If you connect two of these in series the resulting system is called a module and this module will have 7.4V 2000mAh. Likewise if we connect two of these in parallel the resulting module will be 3.7V 4000mAh.

Battery pack

The overall battery is referred to as a battery pack, which is a group of multiple battery modules and cells. For example, the Tesla Model S battery pack has up to 7,104 cells, split in 16 modules with 6 groups of 74 cells in each. Each cell has a nominal voltage of 3-4 volts, depending on its chemical composition. 

These Lithium batteries have only around 3.7V per cell whereas an EV Car requires somewhere near 300V. To attain such high voltage and Ah Rating Lithium cells are combined in series and parallel combination to form modules and these modules along with some protection circuits (BMS) and cooling system are arranged in a mechanical casing collectively called as a Battery Pack. 

_____

Battery Management System (BMS):

A BMS is like the brain or caretaker of batteries, as we saw earlier there are many batteries in an EV and each battery has to be monitored to ensure safety. For Lead Acid batteries BMS is not mandatory although some people use it but for Lithium cells due to its unstable nature BMS becomes essential.

Almost all lithium cells come with their own protection circuit if they are used in consumer electronics. This is because if they are not handled properly, like overcharging or over discharging then the battery would get hot and might even burn. The circuit simply monitors the cell voltage or current and breaks the connection to the load if it exceeds safe limits.

Every BMS measures only three vital parameters of the battery which are the Voltage, Current and Temperature of the cell. It constantly compares these values with safety limits and disconnects the load if they exceed the threshold values. Apart from safety purpose the BMS is also used for some computational purpose, like measuring the SOC and SOH of a battery.

SOC stands for Sate of Charge and SOH stands for State of health. Unlike an ICE Car the amount of fuel left in the battery cannot be measured by directly look at it. Some people even think that measuring the voltage across the terminals of the battery can give you the battery capacity, well it’s not true and it is not that easy. Similarly SOH gives the life expectancy of the battery. Both SOC and SOH are vital information for a consumer since SOC tells you how far you can drive before recharge and SOH tells you when it’s time to replace your batteries. It is the duty of the BMS to measure both these parameters.

Cell balancing

Cell balancing is another important task carried out by the BMS, as we know multiple cells will be combined in series or parallel to form a battery pack. The cell voltage of all the cells should always be equal, for example in a pack of four 18650 cells connected in series the voltage across all the cells should be same else cell with lower voltage will be over discharged and the cell with higher voltage will be over charged. To prevent this BMS performs something called Cell balancing, it detects the cells with higher voltages and discharges them till the potential matches with its neighbors.

Cell Safety

Apart from this the BMS also ensures environmental and electrical protection of the cell. It monitors the temperature of the cells and controls the cooling system present in the BMS. The Tesla model S has a liquid cooling system (Glycol) inside the Battery Pack which is controlled by the BMS. The coolant not only cools the battery but also heats it up to nominal temperature if required during the winters.

______

Thermal management system (TMS):

Thermal management of advanced battery systems is critical to the success of EVs because extreme temperatures can affect the performance, reliability, safety, and durability of batteries.

The ideal temperature for using lithium-ion batteries is in the range between 15 to 35 degree Celsius. The cell’s cycle life starts to degrade rapidly on anything higher than this. A recent study revealed that at 15 degree Celsius, a lithium-ion ferrous phosphate cell lost ~7 % capacity after 2,628 cycles while at 45 degree Celsius, it lost 22 % capacity after only 1,376 cycles. Loss of capacity reduces range per full charge and hastens battery replacement, adversely impacting the financials of fleet operations. In order to prevent further temperature build-up and thermal runaways at high temperatures, the charging rate may need to be reduced, thereby increasing time for charging and reducing vehicle uptime, adding that the discharge power may also need to be curtailed at high temperatures, thereby reducing top speed and acceleration.

Most cell manufacturers would allow operations only up to around 50 or 55 degree Celsius to reduce thermal runaway risks as at temperatures close to this, the vehicle may need to be ‘shut down’ temporarily till the pack cools down. Cathodes of current lithium-ion cells contain a metal-oxide (e.g., ferrous phosphate, nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide). A fire, once kindled in a cell on account of high temperatures, tends to sustain itself using the oxygen contained in the cathode. This can result in serious safety issues.

In the Indian context it is crucial to note that higher summer temperatures in most urban areas in India limit the possibility of using forced natural air for cooling. Owing to this, more effective battery thermal management systems are needed to ensure safety, longevity and functional robustness of EV battery packs.

_

Cooling system:

While advancements have been made in electric vehicle batteries that allow them to deliver more power and require less frequent charges, one of the biggest challenges that remains for battery safety is the ability to design an effective cooling system. In electric cars, discharging the battery generates heat; the more rapidly you discharge a battery, the more heat it generates. Batteries work based on the principle of a voltage differential, and at high temperatures, the electrons inside become excited which decreases the difference in voltage between the two sides of the battery. Because batteries are only manufactured to work between certain temperature extremes, they will stop working if there is no cooling system to keep it in a working range. Cooling systems need to be able to keep the battery pack in the temperature range of about 20-40 degrees Celsius, as well as keep the temperature difference within the battery pack to a minimum (no more than 5 degrees Celsius).  If there is a large internal temperature difference, it can lead to different charge and discharge rates for each cell and deteriorate the battery pack performance.

Potential thermal stability issues, such as capacity degradation, thermal runaway, and fire explosion, could occur if the battery overheats or if there is non-uniform temperature distribution in the battery pack. In the face of life-threatening safety issues, innovation is continually happening in the electric vehicle industry to improve battery cooling system.

There are a few options to cool an electric car battery—with phase change material, fans, air, or a liquid coolant as shown in the figure below:

The determining features of an electric vehicle battery cooling system are temperature range and uniformity, energy efficiency, size, weight, and ease of usage (i.e., implementation, maintenance).

_

Figure above shows battery cell arrangement in a battery pack. Cooling tubes are used to dissipate the heat generated in the battery cells.

While cold temperatures temporarily decrease range and performance, they don’t threaten battery life in the same way that high temperatures do. Operation at high temperatures can accelerate the speed of the battery degradation. 

To protect vehicles from suffering early range degradation, many (though not all) electric vehicles feature complex thermal management systems with liquid cooling to keep the batteries at a safe temperature. This makes a big difference for vehicles operated in especially hot climates, like Arizona.

While cars with liquid-cooled batteries like Teslas did just fine in those regions, early Nissan Leafs suffered high levels of degradation since they do not have an active cooling system. The Japanese automaker was on the receiving end of a class-action lawsuit for that debacle and wound up having to replace a bunch of battery packs with a newer design that is more resistant to overheating and degradation.

______

______

Electric Car Battery Capacity and Range (vide supra):

Capacity:

An electric vehicle’s battery capacity is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), the same unit your home electric meter records to determine your monthly electric bill. In the EV world, kilowatt-hours are to batteries as gallons are to gas tanks. But a full battery can’t be completely equated with a full fuel tank. It’s important to understand that the rated capacity of the battery is something you will never be able to use. In order to preserve battery efficiency and battery life, a “state-of-charge” management system never lets the battery become 100 percent full or 100 percent empty. A more relevant measure might be a battery’s usable capacity, but that’s swathed in mystery, too. Usable capacity is not often reported by some manufacturers. That is unfortunate, because the difference is significant. State-of-charge battery management, a very necessary feature of modern electric cars, nevertheless leaves you with about 60-70 percent of the rated capacity to work with. In other words, don’t rely too much on the fact that the Nissan Leaf has a lithium-ion battery rated at 24 kWh, or that the Tesla Roadster’s battery is rated at 54 kWh. You’ll never be able to tap all of that energy, anyway.

Range:

Range is the stickiest question facing new EV drivers. That’s because it varies much more for an EV than it does for a conventional car. Nissan says the Leaf’s range is 100 miles. EPA testing puts the car’s range at 73 miles. Tesla, meanwhile, says its Roadster can go 245 miles. But for all EVs, range will vary.

EV manufacturers calculate the driving range under the best conditions and according to reports, the distances traveled in the real-world can be 30–37 percent less than advertised. This may be due to the extra electrical loads such as headlights, windshield wipers, as well as cabin heating and cooling. Aggressive driving in a hilly countryside lowers the driving range further.

High and low temperatures affect battery performance and reduce range, which is why some EVs are first being introduced in areas that aren’t very hot or very cold. Also, quick acceleration and fast driving discharge the battery faster. Even aggressive braking hurts significantly, because it cheats the EV’s regenerative braking system of the chance to recapture some energy and recharge the battery.

Because of all these variables, if the manufacturer says 100 miles of range, it could be 60 miles or it could be 130 miles. And if the manufacturer says 100 miles, you’re going to want to allow a buffer.

You can’t tempt fate with the low fuel light like you can in a gasoline car, because the only place to fill up may be your own garage. So if you’re wrong, you’re walking. And that’s why there’s so much talk about range anxiety.

EV makers must further account for capacity fade in a clever and non-alarming way to the motorist. This is solved by oversizing the battery and only showing the driving range. A new battery is typically charged to 80 percent and discharged to 30 percent. As the battery fades, the bandwidth may expand to keep the same driving range. Once the full capacity range is needed, the entire cycle is applied. This will cause stress to the aging battery and shorten the driving ranges visibly. Figure below illustrates three SoH ranges of an EV fuel gauge. 

Figure above shows driving range as a function of battery performance. A new EV battery only charges to about 80% and discharges to 30%. As the battery ages, more of the usable battery bandwidth is demanded, which will result in increased stress and enhanced aging.

______

______

Electric vehicle battery lifespan:

Like the engines in conventional vehicles, the advanced batteries in EVs are designed for a long life but will wear out eventually. Currently, most manufacturers are offering 8-year/100,000-mile warranties for their batteries. Nissan is providing additional battery capacity loss coverage for 5 years or 60,000 miles. Manufacturers have also extended their coverage in states that have adopted the California emissions warranty coverage periods, which require at least 10-year coverage for batteries on partial zero-emissions vehicles (which include EVs).

_

Lithium-ion batteries are well-suited for use in electric vehicles for the same reason they’re well-suited to portable electronics like cell phones and laptops. They offer good energy density and are (relatively) lightweight – allowing for the maximum amount of range to be squeezed out of any battery being fit into a car. While the basic battery chemistry may be the same, the way the batteries are discharged and recharged makes a big difference in lifespan.

Cell phones have small batteries for their pocket-fitting form factor. In order to maximize the amount of time a cell phone can be powered on with such a small energy source, it’s necessary to allow consumers to use the entirety of the battery, from 100% all the way down to 0%. When a cell phone battery runs out of charge, it’s out of charge – there’s basically no energy left inside.

Recharging from 0% (or close to 0%) all the way back up to 100% is the most intensive use-case for a Lithium-ion battery. According to Isidor Buchmann, founder of Cadex Electronics and author of Battery University – a comprehensive educational source on battery technology – Lithium-ion batteries can be cycled about 500 times like this before serious degradation begins to occur. Just 500 cycles before obsolescence is perfectly fine and dandy for companies like Apple and Samsung, who would like you to buy a new phone every year, but two years of use doesn’t even come close to cutting it for cars, which are expected to last over a decade of use potentially by multiple owners.

Thankfully, the batteries in electric vehicles aren’t put through this worst-case scenario. They are engineered to last with serious protections in place to prevent them from dying early.

One such protection all manufacturers use is referred to as a battery buffer. Essentially, drivers are not able to use the all of the electricity stored in their car’s battery back. When the car shows you that there’s 0% energy remaining, there will actually be a buffer of electricity left in the battery to prevent that aforementioned 0% to 100% charge cycle that would accelerate battery degradation.

While not all manufacturers publish the “usable” battery capacity for their cars, Chevrolet did for the Volt plug-in hybrid. Of its 18.4. kWh battery pack, just 14 kWh of electricity is actually available to drivers – about 75% of the battery’s actual capacity. This means a charge from 0% to 100% in the car is more akin to a charge from 15% to 90% – a much less intense use-case for the Lithium-ion battery. This allows for thousands of cycles before serious degradation begins to occur, compared to just hundreds.

Furthermore, one of the worst things you can do to a Lithium-ion battery is to run it down to 0% and let it sit empty without recharging it. This battery reserve is a way of preventing careless users from doing just that and ruining their cars because again – 0% for driver is not actually 0% in the battery.

These protections are lessons learned from the Tesla Roadster. The Roadster did not have any reserve built into the battery. It is possible to drain the battery to actual 0%. If the Roadster is left unplugged like that then eventually the battery capacity will be trashed, and a new battery will be required to get the car in working order again. While it is certainly possible to keep a Roadster battery in tip-top shape for many years of use, there’s nothing protecting the Roadster from negligent ownership.

Speaking of Tesla, they have a slightly different approach to protections than other manufacturers. Tesla is transparent about their top-end buffer – their cars will only charge to 90% by default. You can actually adjust this daily driving buffer to be anywhere between 50% and 90%, depending on your personal preference. However, Tesla permits you to charge up to actual 100% when you want to. For example, you may want the extra range if you’re going to be doing a lot of extra driving one day, or if you’re leaving for a road trip. This approach allows drivers to get full utility of the car and battery when they need it while still protecting it from premature degradation.

_

Electric car battery warranties:

Manufacturers are acutely aware that potential EV buyers could be put off by the possibility of premature and expensive battery failure. The truth is that when treated correctly most modern lithium-ion units are likely to last the lifetime of the car. Even so, most firms cover the battery with a separate, extended warranty.

Most car warranties are around three years and 60,000 miles, but this is increased for the battery element in EVs. For instance, Audi, BMW, Jaguar, Nissan and Renault cover the cells for 8 years and 100,000 miles, while Hyundai ups the mileage limit to 125,000. Tesla has the same 8 year timeframe but no mileage ceiling (apart from the Model 3, which is set at 120,000 miles). And apart from Audi and Tesla, most include a maximum allowable capacity (between 70 and 75 percent) for the battery, which will trigger a replacement if it dips below this figure during the warranty period.

_

EV batteries are designed to last much longer than standard batteries in conventional vehicles, with most vehicle manufacturers offering lengthy warranties on their batteries. However, an electric car battery will need replacing eventually, and depending on the size (kWh), they’re not exactly cheap!

If the EV battery needs replacing and it’s outside of warranty, expect to fork out anywhere between $2,000 and $12,000. Given that there are so many variables, from battery size to labour charges, you will need to contact the manufacturer to get an exact quote. But to give you an indication on price, Nissan lists new batteries as:

24kWh: $7,950

30kWh: $9,780

40kWh: $10,020

While the prices above may have you shaking your head, it’s worth noting that as the EV market diversifies, battery replacement costs may decrease in the coming years.

_____

_____

Electric vehicle battery cost:

The price of lithium-ion batteries has fallen steeply as their production scale has increased and manufacturers have developed more cost-effective methods. 

When the first mass-market EVs were introduced in 2010, their battery packs cost an estimated $1,000 per kilowatt-hour (kWh). Today, Tesla’s Model 3 battery pack costs $190 per kWh, and General Motors’ 2017 Chevrolet Bolt battery pack is estimated to cost about $205 per kWh. That’s a drop of more than 70% in the price per kWh in 6 years!

EVs are forecast to cost the same or less than a comparable gasoline-powered vehicle when the price of battery packs falls to between $125 and $150 per kWh. Analysts have forecast that this price parity can be achieved as soon as 2020, while other studies have forecast the price of a lithium-ion battery pack to drop to as little as $73 / kWh by 2030.

_

Average cost of lithium-ion battery cell to fall below $100/kWh in 2023, according to IHS Markit projection:  The average cost of a lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery cell will fall below $100 per kilowatt hour (kWh) in the next three years, new research shows. The London-based research firm IHS Markit stated that batteries cells and pack will continue their downward slide in price as they are increasingly used to power electric vehicles and power grids as renewables, such as solar and wind, are added.

It pointed out that the average cost of a li-ion cell is expected to decline further through the end of the decade, to as low as $73/kWh in 2030. The average cost of a lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery has already fallen 82% from 2012-2020.

Further reductions are a key factor to increasing the competitiveness and wider adoption of the batteries for electric transportation, self-driving technology, robotaxis and in grid storage. By 2023, the cost of a battery will have declined 86% (by $580/kWh) in a decade, according to the IHS Markit analysis.

IHS Markit expects that the biggest contributor to falling battery cell costs throughout the coming decade will be reductions in manufacturing costs through larger factory sizes — the “gigafactories” and “terrafactories” of the world — and improving economies of scale. Reductions in material costs by improving efficiencies and adopting lower-cost cathode compositions, and improvements in battery energy density are also expected to play a role.

_______

_______

EV battery degradation:

Battery degradation is a natural process that permanently reduces the amount of energy a battery can store, or the amount of power it can deliver. The batteries in EVs can generally deliver more power than the powertrain components can handle. As a result, power degradation is rarely observable in EVs and only the loss of the battery’s ability to store energy matters.

A battery’s condition is called its state of health (SOH). Batteries start their life with 100% SOH and over time they deteriorate. For example, a 60 kWh battery that has 90% SOH would effectively act like a 54 kWh battery.

Keep in mind, this is not the same as vehicle range (distance the vehicle can travel on those kWhs), which will fluctuate on a daily or trip-by-trip basis, depending on a number of factors including charge level, topography, temperature, auxiliary use, driving habits and passenger or cargo load.

Common factors impacting Lithium-ion battery health:

Time

High temperatures

Operating at high and low state of charge

High electric current

Usage (energy cycles)

Additional factors appear to influence battery health:

Use

Extreme climates

Charging type

______

Weather and EV battery performance:

When shopping for EV, be sure its operating range will be well within your daily needs. You’ll want to err on the side of caution, especially if you live in an area that suffers extreme temperature swings.  Unlike an ICE that works over a wide temperature range, batteries are sensitive to heat and cold and require climate control. Heat reduces the life, and cold lowers the performance temporarily. The battery also heats and cools the cabin.

Cold weather in particular can substantially hamper a battery’s performance. A recent AAA study found that when the mercury dips to 20°F and the vehicle’s heater is in use, an average EV’s range drops by 41 percent. The same study determined that when outside temperatures hit 95°F and air conditioning is in use, an EV’s range will drop by an average of 17 percent. Also be aware that driving at higher speeds tends to drain an EV’s battery quicker than does stop-and-go driving around town.

Cold temperatures can sap electric car batteries, temporarily reducing their range by more than 40 percent when interior heaters are used, this new study found. The study of five electric vehicles by AAA also found that high temperatures can cut into battery range, but not nearly as much as the cold. The range returns to normal in more comfortable temperatures.

_______

Vampire Drain:

Like any other new technology out there, electric cars come with their own unique set of problems. While not detracting from the obvious advantages, they are essential to point out, especially the issue of so-called “Vampire Drain.” This is, interestingly, a mechanical area in which a traditional car and electric car are the same.

Both electric and gasoline cars are made to be driven. It is a mechanical truth. When a battery is left idle for long periods, it gradually loses its charge. They don’t lose it for exactly the same reason or at even the same rate, but it does happen. Electric cars are a lot less mechanical than traditional ones, and often contain much more electronic and computerized equipment.

Take a Tesla, for instance. When you park it up and lock the garage, your car doesn’t just stop working. It still operates a number of systems like battery monitoring, stand-by mode and many others. This is the cause of vampire drain in electric vehicles: sitting idly, monitoring itself and waiting to be turned back on again. The loss of power isn’t so dramatic, possibly a few miles of range per day of idling, but it can be more depending on the conditions.

Extreme temperatures both hot and cold tend to affect battery technology quite adversely, though an EV battery pack is well housed against these problems. The great difference with EVs and vampire drain compared to that of regular cars is the ability to monitor the battery condition. Many EVs and charging stations come with accompanying apps that display the state of your battery on your smartphone. So, if you want to maintain a healthy battery charge of 20 percent minimum and 80 percent maximum, you can do that. Only the very newest internal combustion cars – and then usually only at the top-end price bracket – offer such smart features.

Is my EV losing charge while parked?

The simple answer is that most likely yes, your EV is losing some amount of charge while parked and idle. If you’re still plugging your car in each day and maintaining the charge level between 20 and 80 percent, then the amount you’ll lose to vampire drain will be minimal. It can only happen when the car is sitting and not charging, after all.

The main source of the problem in modern cars is the sheer number of electronically founded functions that the car relies upon to work properly. This means that even when “off,” the car is still doing something, and that requires power.

Prevent Vampire Drain in EV Car:

There are a few things you can do to prevent vampire drain. How much you can do does depend on the make and model of your particular electric car. Some allow more functionality than others.

-1. Keep the vehicle plugged in to maintain charge

You might think that this is wasteful or risks “overcharging” the battery, but in fact it’s much worse to let the battery drain to zero or near-zero before charging, so maintaining an optimum charge level is a good idea. Furthermore, if you set the maximum charge level to 80 percent, then the charger will only work to do and maintain that level. It won’t continuously charge at full whack until you reach 100 percent.

-2. Charge the vehicle to at least 80 percent before idling

To minimize the effects of vampire drain when you can’t leave your car plugged in continuously when idling, you should pre-charge it up to 80 percent – 90 if possible. This will at least leave you with as much charge as possible if you later need the car and vampire drain has occurred in the meantime.

-3. Activate “Power Saving” Mode

Whatever your car calls it exactly – energy saving, power saving, etc. – activate this setting on your car and it will minimize power consumption when idling. Your smartphone usually features the same function, deactivating various unnecessary systems in order to conserve energy.

If your car is a Tesla and thus partially relies on Internet connectivity to receive updates, or is by default standing by to connect with your key fob, you can deactivate this function by unchecking the “Always connect” button in the energy saving screen. Other cars may have a similar option to turn off auto-connecting, instead making the car wait for you to physically reactivate it.

-4. Leave the Car Unplugged

Is it contradiction to keep the vehicle plugged in to maintain charge?  No, there is no contradiction here. There are some models of car that actually benefit from the non-plugging-in approach. The Nissan Leaf, for example, when left unplugged will enter into its “Deep Sleep” mode to conserve energy. If your EV has a similar function to this, then follow that route to save on energy drain.

-5. Deactivate “Preconditioning” (Tesla) and Similar Preset Features

Is your electric car programmed with various presets? Is it set to wake up at certain times and activate climate controls to make the car perfect for when you usually set off to work or to do the school run? These presets should be turned off if you know your car is going to be idle for a while. It should be a matter of just pushing a button or two in the car itself or via your smartphone.

The issue of vampire drain is not 100 percent solvable. As long as your car is doing anything at all, however minor, it will expend battery power. You can, however, minimize these effects by taking the steps mentioned above. It’s especially important to consider these points if you know that your car is going to be idle for an extended period of time beyond a few days. Stay charged and stay safe.

________

________

The battery types of some popular EV models are presented here:

-1. Batteries of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) can be charged by using an external source of electric power, as well by the vehicle’s onboard engine:

-The PHEV Toyota Prius uses 4.4 kWh Li-Ion batteries, which provide 11 miles of driving with a charging time of 3 hours (115VAC 15A) and 1.5 hours (230VAC 15A).

-The Chevy Volt uses 16 kWh Li-manganese/NMC batteries, which weigh 400 lb and provide 40 miles of driving with a charging time of 10 hours (115VAC 15A) and 4 hours (230VAC 15A).

-2. Pure electric vehicles include:

-The Nissan Leaf has 30 kWh Li-Manganese batteries with 192 cells, and weigh of 600 lb, with a driving range of 156 miles and a charging time of 8 hours at 230VAC, 15A, and 4h 30A.

-The BMW i3 uses 42 kWh LMO/NMC batteries that weigh 595 lb, with a driving range of up to 215 miles and charging time of 4 hours with an 11kW onboard AC charger and 30 minutes with a 50kW DC charger.

-The Tesla Model S uses a 75kWh battery, has a driving range of 310 miles, with a charging time 9 hours with a 10kW charger and 30 minutes with a 120kW supercharger.

______

______

EV battery charging:

Any electric car that uses batteries needs a charging system to recharge the batteries. The charging system has two goals:

-1. To pump electricity into the batteries as quickly as the batteries will allow

-2. To monitor the batteries and avoid damaging them during the charging process

The most sophisticated charging systems monitor battery voltage, current flow and battery temperature to minimize charging time. The charger sends as much current as it can without raising battery temperature too much. Less sophisticated chargers might monitor voltage or amperage only and make certain assumptions about average battery characteristics. A charger like this might apply maximum current to the batteries up through 80 percent of their capacity, and then cut the current back to some preset level for the final 20 percent to avoid overheating the batteries.

_

How long does it take to charge an EV? And what are the variables that will have an impact on recharging times?

The answer will vary in accordance with these factors:

-1. The output of the device you’re using to recharge your electric vehicle

-2. The speed of the car’s on-board charger to draw power from an alternating-current (AC) power source, if that’s the only option

-3. How depleted the battery is

-4. If your car’s battery capacity is above 40kWh and the charge is below 20 per cent, expect a long wait using anything other than a 350kW charger

________

There are three levels of EV charge rate a grouped by their kW rating.

-1.  Slow (standard) chargers are rated at between 3 kW and 6 kW. These are the most basic of chargers and are the kinds of power you get when plugging your car directly into a wall socket.

-2.  Fast chargers are rated at between 7 kW and 22 kW. This is the kind of power you get from a dedicated at-home EV wall box, or at destination chargers at shopping malls, and public car parks.

-3.  Rapid chargers are rated at 50 kW and up. Some also refer to the super powerful rapid chargers, which are capable of charging at over 100 kW as “ultra-rapid.” It’d be fair to call Tesla’s Supercharger an ultra-rapid charger. There are also some 250 kW CCS chargers, but these are still quite rare and can only be used by a few cars like the Porsche Taycan.

Again, as a general rule, the higher the kW, the faster it will charge your EV. While slow chargers might take all night to fully charge an average sized EV battery, ultra-rapid chargers could do the job in under a couple of hours. On a fast or rapid charger, most modern EVs can charge from zero to 80% in under an hour quite comfortably. Knowing what we know about kW and kWh, we can easily figure out how long it’ll take to charge our EVs to certain levels when we know how powerful the charger is.

Let’s say we’re charging a 75 kWh EV from a 22 kW wall box.

If the car’s battery was completely flat, it would take about 3.5 hours to fully charge — 75 divided by 22 equals 3.4. That’s assuming the charger works at peak power the whole time, which it probably won’t. As the battery reaches maximum capacity, its charge rate will slow down a bit so it’ll probably take more like four hours.

_____

Two different technologies for recharging an EV are demonstrated in the following figure.

AC and DC charging differences:

The AC charger has limited power (less than about 22 kW) and needs a longer time period to fully charge the car. The charging time can reach up to about 12 hours depending on the power level of the charger and the battery characteristics. As shown in the figure above, AC charging relies on onboard circuitry to create a high DC voltage from the commonly-available AC sources. 

The DC charger, on the other hand, uses off-board circuitry to generate a high DC voltage (300–700 V) that is directly applied to the vehicle’s battery management system (BMS). The power level of a DC charger can range from about 25 kW to 350 kW. This significantly reduces the charging time.

Note that the power capacity of a charger determines the rate at which energy is delivered to the battery and consequently the time it takes to charge the battery. The following table compares the charging time of AC (level 1 and 2) and DC (level 3) chargers for a given battery.

_

Grid Peak Power Limitation: 

Feeding multiple high-power charging piles directly from the electric grid can increase the peak power delivered by the grid to an unacceptable level. An article from Analog Devices on energy storage systems that can boost EV’s fast-charger infrastructure explains that when you simultaneously charge five typical EVs in 15 minutes, you can increase the peak power delivered by the grid to more than 1 MW. The grid should deliver this power for 15 minutes. With this in mind, city planners might invest in improving the grid so that it can provide high power levels. But instead of investing in the grid infrastructure itself, developers can use the power that is locally generated from renewable sources such as solar and wind. This will reduce the peak power that the grid should provide. Unfortunately, the energy generated by renewable sources is intermittent. Hence, we need energy storage systems that act like large batteries to store the locally-generated energy and use it when charging EVs.

Managing the Generated Heat:

Several power conversion systems are required to implement the charging station that is depicted above. Considering the high power levels that we are dealing with, we have to reduce losses as much as possible. For example, with a 350-kW charger, a 1% loss in efficiency is equivalent to 3.5 kW of power dissipation. This power dissipates as heat and increases the system temperature. Without an efficient heat management mechanism, the generated heat can damage the system. That’s why we need to design the system using highly-efficient components. For example, using SiC MOSFETs rather than silicon IGBTs can considerably increase the system efficiency. In addition, we will probably need liquid cooling to manage the heat generated by the cables, connectors, and circuitry.

The Need for a Reliable Battery Management System:

When we discuss a unified infrastructure that integrates renewables, energy storage, and EV charging, we need accurate information about the battery state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH). This information allows us to increase the battery lifetime by about 30% by avoiding battery overcharging or overdischarging. The importance of this lifetime improvement becomes apparent when we note that almost half of the system’s overall cost is related to the battery.

In a nutshell  

With fast chargers, we face several technical challenges such as the grid peak power limitation, heat management, and the need for a reliable battery management system.

_____

There are the two ways to charge an electric vehicle battery as emerged from above paragraph:

-1. Alternating Current (AC) chargers provide an alternating current, which periodically reverses direction.

-2. Direct Current (DC) fast chargers provide direct current that moves only in one direction.

But there’s a catch. EV batteries can only store energy in the form of direct current. To charge an EV battery, the onboard charger must convert the alternating current from AC chargers into direct current, increasing charging times substantially.  

Today, EV chargers are available in three different types:  

Type of Charger	Description	Max energy drawn per hour	Charge time (60-kWH EV battery)
Alternating Current (AC) Level 1	Charge via a 120-volt AC plug	1.4kW	2,400 minutes
Alternating Current (AC) Level 2	Charge via a 240-volt AC plug	7.2kW	500 minutes
Direct Current (DC) Level 3	Charge EVs rapidly, but are more expensive to install and use	50-350kW	Range between 10-75 minutes

The first and foremost requirement of an EV is that you should have a dedicated parking space for your vehicle. Home charging can be done via the installation of a home charging point where you park your electric car or an EVSE supply cable for a 3-pin plug socket that is provided by the carmaker. The home charging point is faster and has built-in safety features. It is found that over 80% of the electric car users charge their EVs overnight at home or at work. Level 1 and level 2 charging can be done at home.  

_

Methods of Electric Vehicle Battery Recharging:

	All-electric vehicles	Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
EV charging stations	✓	✓
Regenerative braking	✓	✓
Internal combustion engine		✓

_____

Developing Infrastructure to Charge Plug-In Electric Vehicles: 

Consumers and fleets considering plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs)—which include plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and all-electric vehicles (BEVs)—need access to charging stations, also known as EVSE (electric vehicle supply equipment). For most drivers, this starts with charging at home or at fleet facilities. Charging stations at workplaces and public destinations may help bolster market acceptance.

Charging Infrastructure Terminology:  

The charging infrastructure industry has aligned with a common protocol, the Open Charge Point Interface (OCPI) protocol. Therefore, charging infrastructure counting logic in the Station Locator aligns with the hierarchy defined in OCPI: stations, ports (referred to as electric vehicle supply equipment, or EVSE), and connectors.

Station: called a “location” in OCPI; a collection of one or more EVSE at an address. A station has one or more EVSEs at the same site. A parking garage or a mall parking lot might be considered a station.

EVSE: the technology that controls the energy supply to a single PEV, also called a port. An EVSE cannot charge more than one vehicle at a time.

Connector: the socket or cable available for a PEV to use. A single EVSE may have multiple connectors and connector types (such as CHAdeMO and CCS) but only one may be used at a time.

Charging Equipment:

Charging equipment for PEVs is classified by the rate at which the batteries are charged. Charging times vary based on how depleted the battery is, how much energy it holds, the type of battery, and the type of charging equipment (e.g., charging level and power output). The charging time can range from less than 20 minutes to 20 hours or more, depending on these factors. Charging the growing number of PEVs in use requires a robust network of stations for both consumers and fleets.

EV charging connector types:

Automakers currently use the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J-1772 plug for level 1 and 2 charging, with the exception of Tesla which has an adapter. For DC fast charging there are three plug types used by different automakers: the CHAdeMO, SAE Combined Charging System (Combo/CCS), and Tesla Supercharger. Nissan and Mitsubishi vehicles use CHAdeMO while current and upcoming vehicles from US and European manufacturers have SAE CCS ports. Tesla’s Supercharger equipment is only compatible with Tesla vehicles, although they offer an adapter which allows Tesla owners to use CHAdeMO equipment. 

_____

Charging takes planning, you have to know the specifics of the car you are driving and be aware of a charger’s capability when you are in public. Most chargers today are proved to be “level 2,” meaning that they deliver 6 to 18kW per hour. It would take approximately eight hours to top up a pure EV with a typical Level 2 charger. The solution to this problem would be to install direct-current fast chargers to significantly slim the charging time.

However, the use of DC fast chargers requires electrical infrastructure adopted for high power, and these chargers do not come cheap. The increased voltage will require additional insulation, which may add volume and mass to the electrical components, cables, and connectors of the vehicle.

A higher battery voltage will also require a pack with more cells aligned in series. This will require more sensing and balancing circuits to monitor and balance the battery pack so as to meet the low resistance requirements for high-accuracy measurements. 

_____

Additional Charging Options:

Another standard (SAE J3068) was developed in 2018 for higher rates of AC charging using three-phase power, which is common at commercial and industrial locations in the United States. Some components of the standard were adapted from the European three-phase charging standards and specified for North American AC grid voltages and requirements. In the United States, the common three-phase voltages are typically 208/120 V, 480/277 V. The standard targets power levels between 6 kW and 130 kW.

Extreme fast chargers (XFC), which are capable of power outputs of up 350 kW and higher, are rapidly being deployed in the United States. While XFC are currently available from several charging manufacturers, the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy’s Vehicle Technologies Office is pursuing research that will bridge the technology gaps associated with implementing XFC charging networks in the United States. A 2017 report highlights technology gaps at the battery, vehicle, and infrastructure levels. In particular, most PEVs on the roads today are not capable of charging at rates higher than 50 kW. However, vehicle technology is advancing, and most new EV models will be able to charge at higher rates, enabling the use of XFC.

Mobile charging:

Mobile charging includes charging vans, portable chargers, and temporary chargers, where the chargers themselves are “on the go” and do not require infrastructure investments. With mobile charging, there’s no need for structural changes, no huge financial outlays, and no more problems for fleet EVs who need fast roadside charges – which is one of the first applications of the mobile charging vans.

Volkswagen has deployed electric charging stations with giant integrated batteries to manage station demand and keep them online if the grid goes down. The stations can be deployed anywhere, either temporarily or permanently, serving concert goers at festivals or at other events, or providing charging points in areas where building large EV charging stations isn’t possible. 

Inductive Charging:

Inductive charging equipment, which uses an electromagnetic field to transfer electricity to a PEV without a cord, has been introduced commercially for installation as an aftermarket add-on. Some currently available wireless charging stations operate at power levels comparable to Level 2, though this technology is more common for transit or other fleet operations at higher power levels comparable to DC fast.

_____

Smart EV Charging Habits:

One of the most understated benefits of driving an electric vehicle (EV) is never stopping at a gas station again. In addition to saving money compared to gasoline, EV charging is the more convenient option for many drivers.

What’s the difference between refueling with gasoline and charging with electricity?

Say you drive about 35 miles a day, about what most Americans drive on average. In this scenario, you could plug in once a week for a long time to completely recharge an electric car from 20% to 80%. This is how most people refuel on gasoline, which makes sense; a detour to the gas station is an additional errand as you drive between your home, the grocery store, work, and everywhere else. Since you’re going out of your way to refuel, the most time-efficient option is to go when your car’s fuel tank is empty.

EV charging is totally different because electricity is more accessible than gasoline. It takes just 5 seconds to plug in, and charging stations are located in places where you would park anyway, like at home, at the office, or at a public parking garage while going to restaurants, movie theaters, and other entertainment venues.

For this reason, EV drivers charge opportunistically, plugging into a station if it’s available nearby. For most people, this means charging when they arrive at home to replenish the miles driven that day, but an opportunistic EV driver will plug in anywhere to get a little extra juice.

_

Draining a lithium-ion battery down to 0% doesn’t only cause range anxiety; doing so consistently can be detrimental to the long-term health of the battery. Data from over 6,000 vehicles shows that EV batteries are robust enough to handle thousands of charge and discharge cycles over many years while maintaining good performance, which means that the large majority of EV drivers will never have to worry about replacing their battery.

Figure below shows Battery State-of-Health over Time:

On average, EV batteries can be expected to lose about 2.3% of range every year due to natural aging. For a 250-mile range EV, that’s just 4 miles a year.

Still, there’s no reason to take battery technology for granted. EV owners can be kind to their batteries by abandoning the old “gas station” paradigm for refueling cars and avoiding draining their battery to 0% as much as possible. Think of an EV battery like a cell phone; if you’re around 20%, you should probably just plug in, regardless of when you’ll need to drive next. At the same time, there’s no need to charge to 100% consistently, unless you need to rely on the entire driving range of your vehicle. Staying between 20% and 80% battery capacity will leave you with plenty of driving miles and be gentle on the battery.

The one exception? In the wintertime, staying plugged in keeps the battery is warm. Since it takes battery power to heat up a battery to the optimal operating temperature, staying plugged in will extend the driving range some during cold weather. If you experience range loss of 30% or more, staying plugged in will ease range anxiety.

Battery health and Storage:   

Due to stay-at-home orders, cars are staying parked more than usual. Lithium-ion batteries don’t like to be stored at 100% or 0% for long periods of time because being at one extreme or the other puts excess strain on the battery.

If you won’t be driving your car for a while, try to keep your car about half full. Some electric cars, such as the 2019 Chevy Bolt, let you determine your car’s maximum charge to make storage easy.

The major exception to this rule-of-thumb is Tesla, which recommends that drivers keep their cars plugged in during long-term storage. This is because the cars are connected to the internet for remote control and over-the-air software updates, which can drain the battery all the way down to 0% if the car is unplugged during storage. Always refer to an Owner’s Manual to confirm the best storage procedure for your EV.

In a nutshell:

There’s no need to drain an EV down to 0% before recharging, like you would when refueling with gasoline. Try to stay between 20% and 80% capacity, except when you need to rely on the full driving range of your vehicle. During the wintertime, an EV can lose as much as 30% of driving range due to cold weather. Staying plugged in will keep the battery warm and maximize range.

______

______

Fast-charging can damage electric car batteries in just 25 cycles:

Fast-charging of electric batteries can ruin their capacity after just 25 charges, researchers have said, after they ran experiments on batteries used in some popular electric cars. High temperatures and resistance from fast charging at commercial stations can cause cracks and leaks, said the engineers from the University of California, Riverside. The team charged one set of discharged lithium-ion batteries using the same industry fast-charging method found at motorway stations. The researchers also charged a set using a new fast-charging algorithm based on the battery’s internal resistance, which interferes with the flow of electrons. The internal resistance of a battery fluctuates according to temperature, charge state, battery age and other factors. High internal resistance can cause problems during charging. The algorithmic charging method – known as internal resistance charging – is adaptive, learning from the battery by checking its internal resistance during charging. It rests when internal resistance kicks in, to prevent loss of charge capacity.

For the first 13 charging cycles, the battery storage capacities for both charging techniques reportedly remained similar. After that, however, the industry fast-charging technique caused capacity to fade much faster – after 40 charges the batteries only had 60% of their storage capacity. At 80% capacity, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries have reached the end of ‘use life’ for most purposes. Batteries charged using the industry method reached this point after 25 charging cycles, while batteries charged with internal resistance charging were good for 36 cycles.

Industrial fast-charging affects the lifespan of lithium-ion batteries adversely because of the increase in the internal resistance of the batteries, which in turn results in heat generation.

Even worse effects came after 60 charging cycles using fast industry charging. Electrodes and electrolytes were exposed to the air, increasing the risk of fire or explosion. High temperatures of 60ºC accelerated the damage and the risk. Capacity loss, internal chemical and mechanical damage, and the high heat for each battery are major safety concerns.

Internal resistance charging reportedly resulted in much lower temperatures and no damage. The alternative, adaptive, fast-charging algorithm reduced capacity fade and eliminated fractures and changes in composition in the commercial battery cells.  The technique could be used to improve safety and lifespan of car batteries.  

_

Fast charging is enemy of electric car batteries:

Some of the best data come from informal trials of electric vehicles (EVs) being conducted by fleet operators around the world. A detailed looked was supplied by the fleet-telematics company Geotab. It plumbed data from 6,300 fleet and consumer EVs to understand how their batteries were faring in the real world.

The good news was that batteries last longer than many expected. On average, EV batteries lose about 2.3% per year—or 23 miles for an EV with a 200-mile range over five years. Geotab suggests at that rate most batteries will outlast the useable life of their vehicles (fleet owners often auction off their vehicles after 100,000 miles). Or it may change how long fleet owners retain their vehicles.

What affects EV battery health?

Surprisingly, heavy use (charging many times per week) did not meaningfully accelerate EV battery degradation. But heat and direct current did. Batteries lost their capacity faster in warm climates. Frequent fast-charging (direct current) also took a toll compared to slower Level 1 or 2 charging (alternating current at 120 and 240 volts). A major issue for extreme fast charging tech has been lithium plating which can occur at high-charging rates which involves lithium depositing in spikes on the anode surface instead of being smoothly inserted into the carbon anodes. This can cause a reduction in cell capacity, cause electrical spikes, eventually leading to unsafe battery conditions. Combined, the two factors led to faster battery degradation: about 10% of the original capacity after six years.

Overall, Geotab recommended keeping EVs charged between 20% to 80%, minimizing fast charging, and sticking to temperatures on the cooler side if possible as the ideal way to extend the capacity of your EV battery. As the first generation of mass-produced EVs approaches a decade or more on the road, we’ll soon have far more data about how well they age.

______

______

Can you overcharge an Electric Car?

The battery is usually the most expensive, and most important part of an electric car. So, is it possible to accidentally overcharge an electric vehicle and damage (or degrade) the battery?

The short answer is that you can’t overcharge an electric car’s battery. Electric vehicles (like Teslas, Chevy Bolts, Nissan Leafs) all have a built-in battery management and monitoring system which makes sure that the main battery pack doesn’t overcharge.

Here’s how it works:

Once the system detects that the battery is nearing a 100% charge, it’ll slow down the charging process. When the battery reaches 100%, it will then start to “trickle charge,” which means that the battery will be charged periodically at the same rate of its self-discharge rate. This maintains a full charge for the battery without overcharging. 

It’s worth noting, however, that continuously charging a battery to a full charge of 100% can degrade a battery over time and slightly reduce its effective lifespan.

_

Can you leave an Electric Vehicle Plugged-In overnight?

It is completely safe to leave an electric vehicle charging (or plugged-in) overnight. In fact, charging at night allows you to take advantage of off-peak electrical hours so you can get your car charged for cheaper.  For example, electricity costs up to 13.4 cents/kWh during the middle of the day in Ontario, Canada. From 7PM to 7AM, however, the cost is only 6.5 cents/kWh. That’s a savings of over 50%!

_

Should you leave your EV Charging while you’re gone for long periods of time?

If you’re going to be leaving your electric car at home for a couple of days or weeks, you might be wondering: Should I charge my EV while I’m gone, or just let it sit unplugged?

The answer to this question depends on which model of electric vehicle that you have. However, for the most part, you can leave your electric vehicle charging without any negative effects on your battery.

Keep in mind that it’s best to consult your owner’s manual to find the best route-of-action if you’re going to be leaving your car for an extended amount of time.

In general, if you’re going to be away for months on end, it’s probably a better idea to keep your car plugged-in to avoid your battery draining to zero.

However, if you’re only going to be away for a couple of days or weeks, you could just leave your car unplugged (as long as it was adequate charged beforehand). Just make sure that the battery doesn’t discharge too low. What exactly is “too low” of a charge for a battery? There are varying opinions on this matter, but a general rule of thumb is to keep your battery above 30% to maintain long-term performance. Going below that level once in a while won’t do too much damage (just make sure the battery doesn’t discharge to zero).

If you own a Tesla, it’s recommended that you keep the car plugged-in, but with a maximum charge level set at 50% (this can be done in the car’s settings).

This will allow the battery to maintain a charge of 50%, which is the most stable state for lithium-ion batteries.

_

Will the Battery continue drawing power after Fully Charged?

An electric vehicle does continue to draw power even after it’s fully charged. This is because there are some electrical components in the car that are always on, which will slowly discharge the battery. This small loss of power while your electric car is supposedly “off” is known as phantom power or vampire power or vampire drain (vide supra), and there are a variety of contributors to this loss of power. For example, if you own a Tesla Model 3 and you use sentry mode, then the motion sensors and cameras on the car will be constantly drawing power. In another example, if you monitor your car from an app on your phone (or via Bluetooth), then your car is always drawing electricity to relay the requested information to your phone.

The amount of phantom drain for different electric cars can vary based on different situations, but it’s usually very minor. For instance, on average, a Tesla battery self-discharges about 1-2% per day, even if the car isn’t driven at all.

Overall, phantom drain won’t have a large impact on your battery’s charge level nor will it have a large impact on the range of your car. The cost of the electricity lost by this normal battery self-discharge will be minimal as well.

________

Can you charge an EV in the rain? Is it safe?

Absolutely, it’s safe to charge in nearly any weather condition. That’s because electric vehicles are purposefully engineered to withstand rain and water intrusion, not to mention pesky dust particles that could wreak havoc on an electric system. An electric car or truck, such as the Nissan Leaf, has an “IP rating of 67.”  This number system is known as the Ingress Protection Rating, and it’s applied to a wide number of items used in daily life. This could include the smartphone in your pocket, to wall outlets, kitchen appliances and, yes, even the electric car parked in your garage or driveway. The first of the two numbers relates to small foreign objects, like dust particles or dirt. The second number (the 7 in that IP 67 rating) relates to protection against water and liquids. The rating scale extends from 1-6 for dust/solid object protection, with 6 being the best protection. In terms of liquids, the scale ranges from 1-8, again with the highest number equaling the best protection.

An IP rating of 8 for water intrusion is reserved for highly specialized items.  A rating of 8 would be a submersible and oceanic equipment…something underwater for a long, long time. Buoys are typically what you get in an 8 rating.

Using the Nissan Leaf as an example, the IP 67 rating is equivalent “to submerging any component of our vehicle in water at 1 meter for 30 minutes…this applies to electrical components.” This means the battery and electric motors are built to withstand this level of time and depth of submersion. In other words, the rating more than exceeds anything you’d encounter when plugging your EV into a charging station in the rain.

Level 2 chargers most commonly come with an IP 44 rating. This offers protection from solid objects, like dirt and dust, that are larger than 1 millimeter. It also protects against water splash, such as rain coming for every direction.

______

Can you jump start a car using an electric vehicle?

While it’s possible to jump start a car using an electric vehicle, it’s highly recommended that you don’t. Electric cars feature two batteries: a large lithium-ion unit for the electric motors and a 12-volt battery for accessories. This second battery is similar to the lead-acid battery found in petrol and diesel cars. It ensures the main lithium-ion battery can be charged.

However, the 12-volt battery in an electric car lacks the punch required to crank an internal combustion engine and you risk damaging it if you attempt to jump start another vehicle.

The RAC is pretty conclusive on the matter, urging motorists to ‘avoid using a hybrid electric car [for jump starting] as this could cause damage’. Similarly, many manufacturers advise EV owners against jump starting conventional vehicles. The handbook for the electric Nissan Leaf states that it ‘cannot be used as a booster vehicle because it cannot supply enough power to start a [petrol] engine’. However, it does go on to say that a conventional engine ‘can be used to jump start [the] Leaf’s 12-volt battery’.

In the handbook for the Renault Zoe, you’ll find the following warning: ‘Do not use your electric vehicle to restart the 12-volt battery in another vehicle. The 12-volt electric power of an electric vehicle is not enough to perform such an operation. Risk of damage to vehicle’.

While it’s far from conclusive, a section in the handbook for the Tesla Model S suggests you might invalidate your warranty by jump starting another vehicle. It states: ‘Do not use the battery as a stationary power source. Doing so voids the warranty’.

However, other electric vehicles can be jump-started – you just need to locate the battery. Also, you can indirectly charge a conventional car by using a charger that’s charged using the EV’s 12-volt DC outlet.

______

What happens when an electric car runs out?

Many potential electric-car buyers are concerned about the amount of range they’ll get from the car’s battery and what will happen if they run out of electricity while driving.

There’s little difference between electric and internal-combustion cars in this respect; electric cars need to be charged every so often, just as internal-combustion cars need petrol or diesel fuel every few hundred miles. And just as a petrol or diesel car has a fuel gauge that warns you when the tank is nearing empty, electric cars have a range indicator on the dashboard showing how much further you can go before needing a top-up.

When it’s time to charge, built-in sat-nav systems or third-party apps like Zap Map can navigate to the nearest charging point, and also show if the station is free to use, what type of connectors available and how much a charge will cost you.

You should not run your electric car to empty. Manufacturers warn that this can damage the battery. Running completely out of power, or ‘deep discharging’ as it’s known, can cause the battery cells to deteriorate and reduce their performance in the long run. It’s always better to top up with around 10-20% battery life left.

Can you tow an electric car?

On the off chance you do run out of electricity, contact your breakdown provider and ask for a flatbed truck to take you to a nearby charging station. Electric vehicles shouldn’t be towed with a rope or lift, as this can damage the traction motors that generate electricity through regenerative braking.

Different manufacturers give different advice. Tesla and Renault, for example, advise owners to only use a flatbed truck for recovery. However, Nissan says that the latest Leaf can be towed with the front wheels raised, as this avoids damaging the traction motor. However, a flatbed is always the safest choice.

What is range anxiety?

The term ‘range anxiety’ is often mentioned in connection with electric cars. In general, it refers to the worry a driver has that their car will run out of electricity before they reach their destination or charging point. It’s generally accepted that the more time you spend in an electric car, the less range anxiety you’ll have. This is because public charging infrastructure is rapidly growing.

______

Here are a few tips to help you maintain your electric vehicle battery and increase its lifespan.

-1. Avoid deep battery discharges

Keeping your battery at a low percentage of charge for long periods of time can reduce its lifespan. As a general rule of thumb, keep your battery charged above 30% to maintain battery health long-term.

-2. Avoid extremely Fast Speeds and Acceleration

When you suddenly accelerate your electric car or drive at super high speeds (for long periods of time), the battery has to supply more current to the motors in the car. This heats up the battery and degrades it faster.

-3. Don’t Charge your battery after it reaches 100%

Leaving your battery at a charge of 100% for extended periods of time can lead to faster battery degradation. In general, try to not let your battery sit at a 100% charge level for more than 8 hours at a time.

Some cars (like Teslas) also have the ability to set the maximum charge level allowed for batteries. It’s recommended that set your car battery to charge to a maximum of 90% if you won’t need the range from the extra 10%.

-4. Avoid Fast Charging whenever possible

Fast charging heats up your EV’s battery more than normal charging. As you already know, heat can contribute to a faster decline of battery health. Whenever possible, try to avoid using Supercharging Stations or fast charging stations (unless you’re in a hurry).

-5. Be mindful of Extreme Temperatures

If you live in an extremely hot or cold climate, it can be hard to avoid extreme temperatures sometimes.

However, you should try to do what you can to avoid extreme temperatures. For example, park in the shade instead of parking in direct sunlight.

______

Safe fast-charge, ultra-long range EV still scientifically impossible:

Some Chinese electric vehicle (EV) experts said that it is still impossible to quickly charge an EV to run 1,000 kilometers safely and at a low cost, following the launches of several new models by Chinese brands that claim to do so.

Ouyang Minggao, professor and research group leader of Automotive Powertrain Systems at Tsinghua University and an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, said during an online EV conference that based on current technologies, “anyone who says a car can run 1,000 kilometers, be charged within minutes, and is safe and low cost, you cannot trust them.”

Ouyang’s observation came after the 1,000-kilometer battery became the center of attention in the industry, following several companies that made high-profile introductions of such vehicles.

Aion, an EV brand under the Guangzhou Automobile Group (GAC), announced that its new EV model will be equipped with a graphene-based battery that can be charged to the 80-percent level in just eight minutes and function for 1,000 kilometers.  IM, an EV brand under China’s carmaker SAIC, said its first long-range electronic sedan will be equipped with batteries from CATL that can support more than 1,000 kilometers of driving. NIO, often seen as Tesla’s biggest rival in China, unveiled its latest electronic sedan recently with an improved battery pack to support a 1,000-kilometer driving range.

Gu Huinan, general manager of Aion, said that 1,000-kilometer range vehicles and fast-charging batteries “will definitely be launched within this year,” and that it is “theoretically possible” to charge a battery within eight minutes to drive 1,000 kilometers.”

“There is definitely some inflation in the EV companies’ claims,” Yu Qingjiao, secretary general of the Zhongguancun New Battery Technology Innovation Alliance says.  “Yes, theoretically the range can reach 1,000 kilometers, but it won’t be commercially available because it won’t be cost-effective if it costs 500,000 yuan ($77,150) or even more,” Yu said.

______

______

Wireless Charging:

Wireless charging or wireless power transfer (WPT) enjoys significant interest because of the conveniences it offers. This system does not require the plugs and cables required in wired charging systems, there is no need of attaching the cable to the car, low risk of sparks and shocks in dirty or wet environment and less chance of vandalism. However, this technology is not currently available for commercial EVs because of the health and safety concerns associated with the current technology. The specifications are determined by different standardization organizations in different countries. There are different technologies that are being considered to provide WPT facilities. They differ in the operating frequency, efficiency, associated electromagnetic interference (EMI), and other factors.

Inductive power transfer (IPT) is a mature technology, but it is only contactless, not wireless (vide supra). Capacitive power transfer (CPT) has significant advantage at lower power levels because of low cost and size, but not suitable for higher power applications like EV charging. Permanent magnet coupling power transfer (PMPT) is low in efficiency, other factors are not favorable as well. Resonant inductive power transfer (RIPT) as well as On-line inductive power transfer (OLPT) appears to be the most promising ones, but their infrastructure may not allow them to be a viable solution. Resonant antennae power transfer (RAPT) is made on a similar concept as RIPT, but the resonant frequency in this case is in MHz range, which is capable of damage to humans if not shielded properly. The shielding is likely to hinder range and performance; generation of such high frequencies is also a challenge for power electronics. Wireless charging for personal vehicles is unlikely to be available soon because of health, fire and safety hazards, misalignment problems and range. Roads with WPT systems embedded into them for charging passing vehicles also face major cost issues. Only a few wireless systems are available now, and those too are in trial stage. WiTricity is working with Delphi Electronics, Toyota, Honda and Mitsubishi Motors. Evatran is collaborating with Nissan and GM for providing wireless facilities for Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt models. However, with significant advance in the technology, wireless charging is likely to be integrated in the EV scenario, the conveniences it offers are too appealing to overlook.

_______

_______

Recycling EV Batteries:

Based on the number of electric cars sold in 2017, researchers in the United Kingdom calculated that 250,000 metric tons, or half a million cubic meters, of unprocessed battery pack waste will result when these vehicles reach the end of their lives in about 15 to 20 years — enough to fill 67 Olympic swimming pools. “Landfill is clearly not an option for this amount of waste,” said University of Leicester professor Andrew Abbott, co-author of the review that was published in the scientific journal Nature. “Finding ways to recycle EV (electric vehicle) batteries will not only avoid a huge burden on landfill, it will also help us secure the supply of critical materials, such as cobalt and lithium, that surely hold the key to a sustainable automotive industry,” he said. Lithium-ion batteries cannot be treated like normal waste; they are flammable and could release toxic chemicals into the environment.

_

Electric-drive vehicles are relatively new to the U.S. auto market, so only a small number of them have approached the end of their useful lives. As a result, few post-consumer batteries from electric-drive vehicles are available, thus limiting the extent of battery-recycling infrastructure. As electric-drive vehicles become increasingly common, the battery-recycling market may expand. Widespread battery recycling would keep hazardous materials from entering the waste stream, both at the end of a battery’s useful life and during its production. Work is now under way to develop battery-recycling processes that minimize the life-cycle impacts of using lithium-ion and other kinds of batteries in vehicles. But not all recycling processes are the same:

-1. Smelting: Smelting processes recover basic elements or salts. These processes are operational now on a large scale and can accept multiple kinds of batteries, including lithium-ion and nickel-metal hydride. Smelting takes place at high temperatures, and organic materials, including the electrolyte and carbon anodes, are burned as fuel or reductant. The valuable metals are recovered and sent to refining so that the product is suitable for any use. The other materials, including lithium, are contained in the slag, which is now used as an additive in concrete.

-2. Direct recovery: At the other extreme, some recycling processes directly recover battery-grade materials. Components are separated by a variety of physical and chemical processes, and all active materials and metals can be recovered. Direct recovery is a low-temperature process with minimal energy requirement.

-3. Intermediate processes: The third type of process is between the two extremes. Such processes may accept multiple kinds of batteries, unlike direct recovery, but recover materials further along the production chain than smelting does.

Separating the different kinds of battery materials is often a stumbling block in recovering high-value materials. Therefore, battery design that considers disassembly and recycling is important in order for electric-drive vehicles to succeed from a sustainability standpoint. Standardizing batteries, materials, and cell design would also make recycling easier and more cost-effective.

______

The Second-Life of Used EV Batteries:

When an electric vehicle (EV) comes off the road, what happens to the vehicle battery? The fate of the lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles is an important question for manufacturers, policy makers, and EV owners alike. Today, EVs are a still a small piece of the automotive market. Many of the batteries coming off the road are being used to evaluate a range of options for reuse and recycling. Before batteries are recycled to recover critical energy materials, reusing batteries in secondary applications is a promising strategy.

The economic potential for battery reuse, or second-life, could help to further decrease the upfront costs of EV batteries and increase the value of a used EV. Given the growing market for EVs, second-life batteries could also represent a market of low-cost storage for utilities and electricity consumers. 

The market for second-life batteries:

As the market for electric vehicles grows, so too will the supply of second-life batteries. Forecasts from academic studies and industry reports estimate a range of 112-275 GWh per year of second-life batteries becoming available by 2030 globally. For context, this is over 200 times total energy storage installed in the US in 2018 (~780 MWh).

Why EV batteries could be reused:

After 8 to 12 years in a vehicle, the lithium batteries used in EVs are likely to retain more than two thirds of their usable energy storage. Depending on their condition, used EV batteries could deliver an additional 5-8 years of service in a secondary application.

The ability of a battery to retain and rapidly discharge electricity degrades with use and the passing of time. How many times a battery can deliver its stored energy at a specific rate is a function of degradation. Repeated utilization of the maximum storage potential of the battery, rapid charge and discharge cycles, and exposure to high temperatures are all likely to reduce battery performance.

Given the light-duty cycles experienced by EV batteries, some battery modules with minimal degradation and absent defects or damage could likely be refurbished and reused directly as a replacement for the same model vehicle.  Major automakers, including Nissan and Tesla, have offered rebuilt or refurbished battery packs for purchase or warranty replacement of original battery packs in EVs.

The value of used energy storage:

The economics of second-life battery storage also depend on the cost of the repurposed system competing with new battery storage. To be used as stationary storage, used batteries must undergo several processes that are currently costly and time-intensive. Each pack must be tested to determine the remaining state of health of battery, as it will vary for each retired system depending on factors that range from climate to individual driving behavior. The batteries must then be fully discharged, reconfigured to meet the energy demands of their new application; in many cases, packs are disassembled before modules are tested, equipped with a new battery management system (BMS), and re-packaged.

Depending on the ownership model and the upfront cost of a second-life battery, estimates of the total cost of a second-life battery range from $40-160/kWh. This compares with new EV battery pack costs of $157/kWh at the end of 2019. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has also created a publicly available battery second-use repurposing calculator that accounts for factors such as labor costs, warranty, and initial battery size and cost. The figure below illustrates the potential cost structure of a repurposed battery in a second-life application where the buying price is the maximum value paid for the used battery.  If this value could be passed through to the original owner, it could help to defray the cost of an electric vehicle.

Figure below compares new and repurposed EV battery pack costs:

It is based on the NREL’s Battery Second-Use Repurposing Cost Calculator; that assumes a throughput of 10,000 tons of spent batteries per year (~1 GWh/year), and net repurposing and testing costs of $22/kWh.

Most applications of distributed energy storage have considerable downtime where batteries are not being cycled.  Therefore, second-life batteries offer the greatest economic benefit when battery systems provide multiple services at the same time. 

________    

________ 

Section-11  

Energy efficiency of EV:

One common argument against electrifying the car is that all it really does is move the engine from one place to another – from your car to a power plant. There’s an advantage to moving that exhaust away from people, but overall, it’s argued, the effect is pretty limited.

With conventional fuel cycles we often want to know about two primary numbers, the “tank to wheel efficiency” which tells you how efficiently your engine turns fuel into movement, and the “well to tank efficiency” which tells you how efficiently that fuel comes into your gas tank. Taking these well-to-tank and tank-to-wheels efficiency together gives a well-to-wheels efficiency for each vehicle type as the product of well-to-tank and tank-to-wheel efficiencies. 

_

Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency, expressed as fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning fuel. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories; diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%; electric vehicles have efficiencies of 69-72%, when counted against stored chemical energy, or around 59-62%, when counted against required energy to recharge i.e., the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels. An electric motor typically is between 85% and 90% efficient. That means it converts that percentage of the electricity provided to it into useful work. The difference between the efficiency of the motor and the overall efficiency of an electric car is accounted for losses attributed to charging and discharging the battery and, for some charging (for some cars), and converting AC to DC current and back again.

In a recent post for Quora, Brian Feldman, a robotics expert and entrepreneur, offered this explanation: “Consider the Tesla Model S, which has an available 85 kWh battery and a 265 mile range. Consider a similar gas-powered car, which gets 35 mpg. Gasoline contains about 33 kWh of energy per gallon. The Tesla uses 320 Wh/mile of energy (85 kWh/265 miles). The gas powered car uses 940 Wh/mile of energy (33 kWh/35 miles). Once the energy is on board (not counting the efficiency of the power generation, oil refining, or charging), the Tesla is using only about a third as much energy as the comparable gasoline-powered car.”

Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. However, they are not equally efficient at all speeds. To allow for this, some cars with dual electric motors have one electric motor with a gear optimized for city speeds and the second electric motor with a gear optimized for highway speeds. The electronics select the motor that has the best efficiency for the current speed and acceleration. Regenerative braking, which is most common in electric vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking.

_

Proponents of electric cars usually tout an increased efficiency as the primary advantage of an electric vehicle as compared to one powered by an internal combustion engine. The energy efficiency comparison is difficult to make because the two vehicles operate on different principles. Vehicles powered by internal combustion engines operate by converting energy stored in fossil fuels to mechanical energy through the use of a heat engine. Heat engines operate with very low efficiencies because heat cannot be converted directly into mechanical energy. Electric vehicles convert stored electric potential into mechanical energy. Electricity can be converted into mechanical energy at very high efficiencies. A quick analysis will show electric vehicles are significantly more efficient. However, electricity (in a form usable for humans) does not naturally exist in nature. The electricity used for electric cars may be created by converting fossil fuels to electricity using a heat engine (with a similar efficiency as an automotive engine), converting nuclear energy to electricity using a heat engine, or through dams, windmills, or solar energy. Each of these conversion processes operate with less than 100% efficiency and those involving heat engines operate at relatively low efficiencies.

When comparing the efficiencies of an electric vehicle to a gasoline vehicle, the efficiency of the source of generating the electric energy must be included in the comparison. For example, it is incorrect to say that an electric vehicle charged each night from a gasoline powered generator is more efficient than a gasoline powered vehicle.

An electric car’s efficiency is affected by its battery charging and discharging efficiencies, which ranges from 70% to 85%, and its engine and braking system. The electricity generating system in the US loses 9.5% of the power transmitted between the power station and the socket, and the power stations are 33% efficient in turning the calorific value of fuel at the power station to electrical power. Overall this results in an efficiency of 20% to 25% from fuel into the power station, to power into the motor of the grid-charged EV, comparable or slightly better than the average 20% efficiency of gasoline-powered vehicles in urban driving, though worse than the about 45 % of modern Diesel engines running under optimal conditions (e.g. on motorways).

Electric cars typically use 10 to 23 kW·h/100 km (0.17 to 0.37 kW·h/mi). Approximately 20% of this power consumption is due to inefficiencies in charging the batteries. Tesla Motors indicates that the vehicle efficiency (including charging inefficiencies) of their lithium-ion battery powered vehicle is 12.7 kW·h/100 km (0.21 kW·h/mi) and the well-to-wheels efficiency (assuming the electricity is generated from natural gas) is 24.4 kW·h/100 km (0.39 kW·h/mi). The US fleet average of 10 L/100 km (24 mpg-US) of gasoline is equivalent to 96 kW·h/100 km (1.58 kW·h/mi), and the Honda Insight uses 32 kW·h/100 km (0.52 kW·h/mi) (assuming 9.6 kW·h per liter of gasoline).

The greater efficiency of electric vehicles is primarily because most energy in a gasoline-powered vehicle is released as waste heat. With an engine getting only 20% thermal efficiency, a gasoline-powered vehicle using 96 kW·h/100 km of energy is only using 19.2 kW·h/100 km for motion.

The waste heat generated by an ICE is frequently put to beneficial use by heating the vehicle interior. Electric vehicles generate very little waste heat and resistance electric heat may have to be used to heat the interior of the vehicle if heat generated from battery charging/discharging can not be used to heat the interior. Electric vehicles used in cold weather will show increased energy consumption and decreased range on a single charge.

______

To a large extent, a vehicle’s energy efficiency and the characteristics of the fuels used to power it determine the environmental impacts and operating costs of car usage. Vehicle fuel efficiency is typically discussed in terms of miles per gallon (mpg) or, for vehicles running on alternative fuels, miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (mpge). Here, a gallon gasoline equivalent is the amount of an alternative fuel such as electricity or natural gas having the same energy content (in joules, for example) as one gallon of gasoline. Table below shows the fuel economy and annual fuel consumption of five model year 2013 compact cars, two gasoline-powered and two PEVs. The gasoline-powered vehicles are a Ford Focus FWD (front-wheel drive) with automatic transmission and the Toyota Prius C hybrid, and the PEVs are the Chevy Volt plug-in hybrid and the Ford Focus Electric.

Fuel Economy and Energy Consumption of Five Model Year 2013 Vehicles: 

 * Assumes 12,000 miles driven per year

** Assumes 60% of miles driven on electricity, based on the Volt’s 38-mile “all-electric range 

The PEVs clearly outperform the gasoline-powered vehicles by this measure, largely because an electric vehicle motor is far more energy-efficient than an internal combustion engine. On the other hand, a great deal of energy is lost during the generation, transmission and distribution of the electricity that powers it. A more comprehensive comparison the various vehicle types from an energy efficiency perspective must be a “well-to-wheels” comparison, which encompasses the fuel production and delivery stages as well as the fuel use stage.

In a vehicle with an internal combustion engine, the wheels are turned by a drivetrain, which is driven by the conversion of chemical energy into kinetic energy. In this case the chemical energy comes in the form of gasoline or diesel fuel, whose combustion occurs in the engine. In an electric vehicle the wheels are turned by a drivetrain that is also driven by the conversion of chemical energy into kinetic energy—but in this case the chemical energy is stored in the battery. Its source (if the vehicle was charged with grid electricity) is also likely to be combustion, specifically the combustion of coal or natural gas at a central power plant. The battery’s chemical energy may also come from nuclear and renewable sources, depending on the fuel mix of the power plant.

To compare well-to-wheels efficiencies of gasoline-powered vehicles and PEVs, researchers calculate well-to-wheels efficiency for each vehicle type as the product of well-to-tank and tank-to-wheel efficiencies. The well-to-tank energy efficiency, also known as fuel production efficiency, encompasses the efficiencies of stages from fuel extraction to delivery of fuel to the point at which it is ready to be used in the vehicle. Well-to-tank energy efficiency of an all-electric vehicle is calculated by multiplying the efficiencies of power generation, power distribution, and battery charging. Table below shows the share of power generation and average plant efficiency by energy source in the United States in 2012 (EIA 2012a, 2012b, 2013a). These average efficiencies range from 32 to 42%, and the overall average efficiency of electricity generation in the United States in 2012 was 36%. The efficiency of electricity transmission and distribution is in the range of 93 to 94% (EIA 2009, 2012b). The charging efficiency of batteries in electric vehicles is 90 to 94% (DOE and EPA 2013; Thomas 2009). Thus, the well-to-tank efficiency of an all-electric vehicle charged on the average U.S. electricity mix is approximately 30–32%. It is important to note that generation mix varies widely both by location and by time of day, however.

Tank-to-wheels efficiency encompasses the efficiency with which energy is delivered to the wheels to propel the vehicle. Battery energy conversion efficiency in PEVs is approximately 90%, while electric motors used in these vehicles are typically 76 to 80% efficient (DOE and EPA 2013; Thomas 2009). The high battery and motor efficiencies, together with efficient drivetrain systems, result in tank-to-wheel efficiencies in the range of 64 to 68% for all-electric vehicles. Taking these ranges for well-to-tank and tank-to-wheels efficiency together gives a well-to-wheels efficiency of 19 to 22% for today’s all-electric vehicle on the average power generation mix. 

Production of petroleum fuels involves much smaller energy losses. Gasoline typically has a well-to-tank efficiency of about 88% (Wang 2008). Gasoline-powered vehicles’ tank-to-wheels efficiencies are far lower than those of all-electric vehicles, however, because of the low thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines. The thermal efficiency of gasoline engines used in today’s light-duty vehicles ranges from 30 to 35% (Edwards et al. 2011). Average tank-to-wheels efficiency for 2011 gasoline-powered vehicles with standard and advanced engines were 14% and 18%, respectively, while the average 2011 gasoline hybrid-electric vehicles had 24% tank-to-wheels efficiency (Lutsey 2012). Consequently, well-to-wheels efficiencies of current conventional gasoline-powered vehicles are in the range of 12 to 16%, while a typical hybrid well-to-wheels efficiency is 21%.

Therefore, the well-to-wheels energy efficiency of all-electric vehicles is higher than that of conventional gasoline-powered vehicles, but similar to that of hybrid-electric vehicles. The well-to-tank, tank-to-wheel, and well-to-wheel efficiencies associated with conventional gasoline, hybrid-electric, and all-electric vehicles are summarized in Table below. 

Comparison of Well-to-Wheels Efficiency by Vehicle Type in 2013:

_

Improvement of energy efficiency in coming years:     

Vehicle efficiency will improve in the coming years. For gasoline-powered vehicles, engines and transmissions will improve steadily as part of auto manufacturers’ strategies to meet the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) and GHG emissions standards. The standards will reduce new car fuel consumption by 40% by model year 2025. If we assume that half of that reduction will come from improvements to the engine and transmission (with the remainder coming from vehicle weight reduction, reduction in tire rolling resistance, improvements in vehicle aerodynamics, and the efficiency of vehicle accessories), this will raise the tank-to-wheel efficiency of conventional gasoline-powered vehicles to 18 to 23% and the well-to-wheels efficiency to 15 to 20%. A similar improvement in hybrid-electric vehicles would raise their overall efficiency to about 26%.

Well-to-wheels efficiency will improve for PEVs as well in the near future. The efficiency of electricity generation will increase as coal-fired plants are retired, integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC) generation technology becomes more prevalent in coal (and biomass) power plants, and new combined–cycle natural gas plants come on line (ANL 2012). The efficiency of a coal plant using IGCC technology potentially can be boosted to 50% or more (DOE 2013a). General Electric’s new combined cycle generation systems offer efficiencies above 60% at high operating loads (GE Energy 2013b) while Siemens’ new gas turbine operated in a combined cycle achieved a net efficiency of 60.75% (Siemens 2013). Improvements in transmission and distribution efficiency will also contribute to the overall efficiency of the system. Taken together, these advances will bring generation efficiency to approximately 48% in the next five to ten years, which would bring the well-to-wheel efficiency of all-electric vehicles to 26 to 29%. Improvements in motor efficiency and in battery energy conversion efficiency would raise the efficiency further.

Hence, in terms of well-to-wheels efficiency, PEVs will remain ahead of conventional gasoline-powered vehicles and on par with, or slightly ahead of, non-plug-in hybrids. Energy efficiency does not tell the whole story, however. In the end, it is not energy efficiency per se that will serve as the basis for comparing vehicles, but rather performance in terms of fueling costs and environmental impacts, among other measures. In particular, the GHG emissions associated with the use of either a conventional vehicle or PEV is highly dependent on fuel source and can be lowered dramatically by the use of low-carbon fuels. Charging an all-electric with wind or solar power will eliminate its emissions entirely. Biomass power plants and biofuels also have the potential to reduce GHG emissions, although the full-fuel-cycle impacts of these fuels must be taken into account. In any case, energy efficiency properties are fundamental properties of the vehicle types that then lead to other performance characteristics that more directly influence the market and policy choices. Well-to-wheels efficiency will remain a crucial determinant of fueling costs and the fraction of transportation needs that can be met with low-carbon fuels.

_______

Electric cars are considerably more efficient than gasoline cars because electric motors are inherently more efficient (about 80 percent) than internal combustion engines (a mere 15 -20 percent for the engine alone, much less for an entire gas-powered vehicle), which waste a high proportion of the fuel they burn as useless heat. How do the figures work out in practice?

The 2020 Volkswagen e-Golf (list price around $31,895–$38,895) manages an average (city and highway combined) 30 kWh (kilowatt hours) per 100 miles (equivalent to 122 mpg) for an annual fuel cost of $600 per year, where a 2020 gasoline version of the same car (list price $23,195–$23,995) comes in at just 29 mpg for an annual fuel cost of $1050 per year.  Tesla claim an even bigger difference: an annual 30,000-mile running cost for a Tesla Model S of $1,048 (at $0.12 per kWh) compared to a typical gas car’s $5,318 (based on $3.90 per gallon of fuel and 2015 figures).

Hybrid cars achieve their higher efficiency and fuel economy largely by switching from gasoline power to electricity whenever it’s favorable, such as sitting still in heavy traffic. Where a typical car (a four-cylinder, 2.0-liter Ford Fusion) driven by gasoline might achieve around 25mpg, its equivalent hybrid manages a far more impressive 41 mpg (combined)—over 50 percent better, while the plug-in hybrid version achieves the equivalent of 103mpg.  

It’s not just the engine that makes an electric car more efficient. With regenerative brakes, you’re not throwing energy away every time you stop and stop: the car’s electric motor becomes a generator so that when the brakes are engaged, the car slows down as your kinetic energy turns to electricity that recharges the battery.

David MacKay sums it all up neatly in his book Sustainable Energy Without Hot Air: “Electric vehicles can deliver transport at an energy cost of roughly 15 kilowatt hours (kWh) per 100km. That’s five times better than our baseline fossil-car, and significantly better than any hybrid cars.”

Figure below shows the energy consumption of electric cars compared to other cars (and other forms of transportation)

Figure above shows how much energy (in kWh) it takes to move one passenger a distance of 100km (~60 miles). Solar cars (tiny one-person experimental vehicles powered entirely by solar panels) are most efficient, largely because they weigh so little: most of them don’t even have batteries. Electric cars come midway on the scale, though some (such as the Tesla) fare better than others. Gasoline cars are worst by far (largely because of their heavy engines and transmissions) and hydrogen fuel-cell cars aren’t much better. Note how very efficient trains and buses are, even though they use conventional technology. That’s because they carry large numbers of people and, as thin tubes moving through the air, are relatively aerodynamic. 

______

Most researchers agree that a switch to EVs would reduce the total primary energy consumed for personal transportation. However, many do not agree on the precise amount of energy that might be saved. The divergence in estimations is mainly due to the fact that energy use comparisons between battery-electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs), and conventional vehicles (CVs) are affected by a number of variables and necessary assumptions. Vehicle mass, performance, range requirements, system configuration, operating schedule, and the upstream losses of converting source fuels into useable energy and delivering it to the end user all affect system-wide energy use. And a realistic baseline EV performance profile is difficult to define, primarily because the technology is relatively undeveloped and rapidly changing.

Considering only the vehicle itself, EVs are more energy efficient than CVs. A BEV operates at roughly 46% efficiency, whereas a CV operates at about 18% efficiency. In other words, approximately 46% of the electrical energy taken from the wall plug to charge EV propulsion batteries is delivered to the drive wheels as useful work. In contrast, only about 18% of the energy dispensed into the fuel tank as liquid motor fuel ends up at the drive wheels of a CV. In order to determine system-wide energy efficiency (from source fuel to drive wheels), the upstream losses of refining and delivering motor fuel and the losses of generating and delivering electricity must be factored in.

The losses of converting source fuels into electrical energy (conversion losses) and delivering the energy to a local electrical outlet are far greater than the losses of extracting, refining, and delivering petroleum motor fuel. However, petroleum fuel-chain efficiency does not include conversion losses, as does the electrical energy chain. Conversion of liquid motor fuel into useable power takes place in the vehicle and is therefore considered a component of CV energy efficiency. Specifically, about 83% of the energy contained in crude oil arrives at the service station as gasoline, whereas only 20% to 27% of the primary energy used to generate electricity (depending on the source fuel and conversion efficiency) arrives at the electrical outlet ready to charge EV batteries. When the entire energy chain is considered, studies generally conclude that battery-electric cars are roughly 10% – 30% more energy efficient than conventional gasoline cars, depending on the particular assumptions of vehicle energy use and energy chain efficiency. Comparisons between HEVs and CVs are more diverse because of the many design variables of the hybrid power system. HEVs are generally considered slightly more efficient to significantly more efficient than CVs – again, depending on the assumptions used in the comparison.

In essence, BEVs are the ultimate alternative fuel vehicles because their energy comes from the source fuels used to generate electricity. In the U.S., which gets 55% of its electrical energy from coal, battery-electric cars are predominately coal powered cars. About a third of the energy used by BEVs in the U.S. would come from clean-burning natural gas. In Canada, which relies heavily on hydroelectric power, battery-electric cars are powered mainly by the natural energy of water seeking its own level. Over half of the electrical energy in France comes from nuclear plants, which makes French BEVs predominantly nuclear powered cars. In addition, BEVs make it possible to meet transportation energy needs with solar, wind, and geothermal energy, which are already viable options for fixed generation sites, but are not well suited to mobile applications. Source fuel flexibility alone offers significant practical and economic benefits, especially in view of the diversity of regional energy resources. And EVs, both battery-electric and hybrid-electric configurations, are inherently cleaner.

_______                        

_______   

Section-12  

EV maintenance:  

EVs typically require less maintenance than conventional vehicles because:

-1. The battery, motor, and associated electronics require little to no regular maintenance

-2. There are fewer fluids, such as engine oil, that require regular maintenance

-3. Brake wear is significantly reduced due to regenerative braking

-4. There are far fewer moving parts relative to a conventional gasoline engine.

_

Do electric cars need oil changes? No.

You will not need to perform a traditional oil change on any electric vehicle. Traditional vehicles require oil for lubrication of the moving motor parts. In a combustion engine, there are valves, pistons, and other moving components that must remain lubricated. This isn’t the case with an EV. However, other forms of fluids, oils, and lubricants are very important to any EV owner. For example, there is a special oil that is used for cooling which is essential to any EV functionality. Yes, electric cars require less maintenance, but that doesn’t mean you can neglect them. There is no such thing as a “zero maintenance” car. While you won’t ever need an EV oil change, you will still need to have the fluids and lubricant checked in the gear reducer (EV transmission) periodically.

Do electric cars have engines?

Yes, they have motors but not in the same sense that traditional ICE vehicles do. Even though the lubricants and electric powertrain are designed to last as long as the battery, you still need to consider the health of the EV gearbox and electric motor, which both require lubrication. If systems are malfunctioning, there could be a faulty part or an improper battery drain. However, any EV maintenance tasks don’t need to be done often, which does allow for less maintenance and operational costs. Since electric vehicles are so new and the technology is still emerging, there is no set period of time to have these maintenance tasks performed. It is recommended that you get an “EV check-up” at least once a year to make sure everything is working properly and systems are operating correctly. If you drive more than 14,000 miles a year with your EV, you might want to schedule a bi-annual EV check-up. This way, you can be sure that nothing is improperly draining your EV battery life which will help extend the life of your EV battery as long as possible.

EV manufacturers may employ different technologies and operating systems in their own vehicles as well as what’s used in competing vehicles (think Tesla Model 3 vs. Nissan Leaf), which may affect the maintenance. Here is a guideline, but you want to reference your owner’s manual for a more accurate timeline.

7,500 miles: Check fluids and inspect the systems. Rotate tires.

15,000 miles: Replace wiper blades.

36,000 miles: Replace cabin air filter.

75,000 miles: Replace hood gas struts.

Every 5 years: Fill vehicle fluids and replace brake fluid.

Every 7 years: Change air conditioning desiccant.

Be wary of your EV battery warranty as well. If you are experiencing any problems at all, make sure to have them handled before the warranty expires as currently, EV batteries are very expensive. Several companies offer 8-10 years limited-mile warranties but that doesn’t mean you won’t have any issues. Don’t get stuck with a broken EV battery outside of your battery warranty as it might cost you more to fix/replace the battery than you originally paid for the car brand new.

Other Traditional Car Maintenances that EVs don’t require:

Electric vehicles require far less maintenance than traditional vehicles because they don’t contain an internal combustion engine. Aside from not having to change the oil in an electric vehicle, here are some other maintenance tasks that your EV won’t need:

Replacing the spark plugs

Changing out fuel filters

Swapping the drive belts

Replacing the water pump

Carburettor flooding/issues

Blown head gaskets

Replacing belts/hoses

Radiator problems

Ring and cylinder wear

Bearings/crankshafts/camshafts

Exhaust system/pipes

All of these factors add to your cost savings as a whole, not to mention the time you will save when looking at EV ownership vs. traditional ICEs.

_____

Routine maintenance procedures of a typical EV:

Brakes: Thanks to EVs’ regenerative braking function (where they rely on the electric motor’s resistance to slow the vehicle down, like engine-braking in a gas-powered vehicle might), brake wear is comparatively lower than on a vehicle that strictly relies on friction brakes. EVs still have friction brakes, though, and the brake fluid and individual components, such as the pads and rotors, will eventually require replacement, be it due to age or wear.

Powertrain: The direct-drive or multi-speed transmission of an EV may require a fluid change during the course of vehicle ownership. Consult your owner’s manual to determine the recommended interval for completing this service for your specific EV.

Cooling: In order to keep key electrical components from overheating, most EVs use coolant or refrigerant to cool the likes of the charger, inverter, and battery pack. Maintaining the cooling system’s efficiency, however, may require infrequent coolant flushes or (for the A/C) refrigerant recharges. Consult your owner’s manual to determine the recommended interval for completing this service for your specific EV.

Tires: As on cars with fuel-fed engines, EVs require a tire rotation every 5,000-10,000 miles. Here again, follow the manufacturer-recommendation—especially for vehicles using directional rubber or staggered front/rear tire sizes. And, to be clear, electric cars’ tires also wear out, just like those on your regular gas-fed ride.

EVs eat tires faster:

EVs consume tires at a much higher rate than internal combustion vehicles. They’re heavier and create near-instant torque off the line. You don’t need to hunt for long to find a Tesla owner who’s replaced their tires after a mere 10,000 miles. EV customers are coming back for tire replacements 30% more frequently than traditional internal combustion vehicle owners. While EVs have less of a need to visit a service shop, they’ll need tire replacement more often.

What’s the best way to prolong the life of an EV’s battery pack?

Like the mechanical bits that motivate a car or truck with an internal combustion engine, the electric motor and battery pack of an EV degrade over time. That said, there are a number of actions owners can take to prolong the service life of their EV’s precious battery pack.

-Avoid extreme temperatures: Both extremely hot and extremely cold temperatures negatively affect battery performance. Nevertheless, manufacturers generally factor in such temperature extremes during vehicle development and most EVs offer adequate auxiliary cooling and heating options to ensure battery pack temperatures remain at tolerable levels.

-Avoid regularly fully charging and depleting the battery: Charging an EV to full capacity and running it out of charge risk degrading its battery pack. Fortunately, many EV manufacturers prevent full capacity charging in order to limit battery degradation.

-Avoid regularly using fast chargers: Quick-charging “Fast Chargers” degrade battery packs more quickly than typical, slower charging methods such as a Level 2 charger.

______

Though your electric car does not need oil, it requires a routine check on these 3 fluids in EVs; coolant, brake fluid, and windshield washing fluid.

 -1. Coolant – Electric cars rely on coolant flowing through the thermoregulation system to prevent the batteries from overheating. You need to add and replace the coolant during the maintenance.

-2. Brake Fluid – A regenerative braking system relies on the brake fluid to work smoothly. Normally, the brake fluid in electric cars should be replaced after running about 40,000km (25,000miles)

-3. Windshield Washing Fluid – Depending on the usage of windshield washing fluid, you should refill it as often as needed.

______

Maintenance cost: 

Electric vehicles have far fewer moving parts than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. The battery, motor, and electronics associated with the drive train require no regular maintenance. Oil changes become obsolete and there are no other fluids to change aside from brake fluid. Brakes on an electric vehicle require less maintenance than brakes on a conventional car since wear on the brakes of an EV is significantly reduced due to regenerative braking. Table below summarizes an article published by Inside EVs that itemized the maintenance cost savings of owning and operating an EV. 

Maintenance Costs over First 100,000 miles:

Service maintenance	Traditional vehicle	Electric vehicle
Tires	$700	$700
Oil Change (every 5,000 miles)	$600	0
Automatic Transmission Fluid	$ 60	0
Spark Plugs and Wires	$200	0
Muffler	$180	0
Brakes	$400	$200
Total	$2140	$900

Based on Table above, maintenance savings for an EV in the first 100,000 miles would be $1240. This number is adjusted using a multiplier of 120% to account for the additional 20,000 miles needed to reach the 120,000 miles used in the assumption for the mileage over life of the vehicle, yielding a value of $1488.

______ 

______

Cost benefits of EV:

Electric vehicles can be more expensive to purchase than their petrol and diesel equivalents, especially brand new. This may balance out through lower operating costs over time. Servicing an electric vehicle can cost less than a petrol vehicle, as there are fewer moving parts to maintain or replace. The Electric Vehicle Council is the national body representing the electric vehicle industry in Australia. They have a tool you can use to calculate the cost benefits of owning an electric vehicle. The Council’s September 2019 report, The state of electric vehicles in Australia, estimates the following costs for an annual travel distance of 12,600km:

Metric	Electric vehicle	Petrol vehicle
Average annual cost	$623.70	$1,923.26
Energy/fuel use per km	0.150kWh	0.108L
Electricity/fuel cost	$0.33/kWh	$1.44/L
Cost per km	$0.05	$0.15
Fuel savings	$1299.56 per year
Five-year savings	$6,497.82

_______

Cost Advantage of electric vehicles for business:  

Electric vehicles offer a great reduction in transport costs for businesses, especially for fleet vehicles with regular journeys of up to 100 miles per day. Although electric vehicles are more expensive to buy, they have significantly lower running costs when compared to petrol or diesel equivalents. 

The British Vehicle Rental and Leasing Association has calculated that depending on when and how an electric vehicle is charged it will cost two to four pence per mile. This compares to 10 to 14 pence per mile for an equivalent petrol or diesel vehicle, representing a saving of around 80 to 90 per cent on fuel costs.

There are a series of financial incentives for businesses, including tax and duty exemptions for you and your employees and enhanced capital allowances.

Moving to using electric vehicles gives businesses the chance to become involved in innovative transport developments which are addressing environmental issues. Electric vehicles have no tailpipe emissions. It is estimated that an electric car powered from today’s grid could emit between 15 per cent and 40 per cent less CO2 over its lifetime than a similar sized petrol car.

_______

EVs offer Big Savings over Traditional Gas-Powered Cars: 2020 study:

When it comes to buying an electric vehicle, many consumers might like the idea, but they sometimes balk at the purchase price, which is typically higher than that of an equivalent gasoline-powered vehicle. However, new research from Consumer Reports shows that when total ownership cost is considered—including such factors as purchase price, fuelling costs, and maintenance expenses—EVs come out ahead, especially in more affordable segments.

The savings advantage can be compelling in the first few years and continues to improve the longer you own the EV. This study shows that fuel savings alone can be $4,700 or more over the first seven years.

When comparing vehicles of similar size and from the same segment, an EV can cost anywhere from 10 percent to over 40 percent more than a similar gasoline-only model, according to CR’s analysis. The typical total ownership savings over the life of most EVs ranges from $6,000 to $10,000, CR found. The exact margin of savings would depend on the price difference between the gas-powered and EV models that are being compared.

For lower-priced models, the savings on ownership costs over the lifetime of the vehicle (200,000 miles) usually exceed the extra money paid for a comparable EV. For example, a Chevrolet Bolt costs $8,000 more to purchase than a Hyundai Elantra GT, but the Bolt costs $15,000 less to operate over a 200,000-mile lifetime, for a savings of $7,000, this study found. In the luxury segment, operating cost savings are often aided by a tighter price differential. The Tesla Model 3 is priced lower than the gas-powered BMW 330i, and priced only about $2,000 more than an Audi A4. But the savings on operating costs for the Model 3 are about $17,000 when compared with either of the popular German gas-powered sedans.

“No matter how you look at it, the massive lifetime savings potential of EVs could be a game changer for consumers,” says Chris Harto, CR’s senior policy analyst for transportation and energy, and the leader of the study. “As battery prices and technology improve, prices come down, and more attractive models hit the market, it’s only going to get better.”

What this study found:

Fuel savings: The study shows that a typical EV owner who does most of their fueling at home can expect to save an average of $800 to $1,000 a year on fueling costs over an equivalent gasoline-powered car.

Maintenance and repair: The study also found that maintenance and repair costs for EVs are significantly lower over the life of the vehicle—about half—than for gasoline-powered vehicles, which require regular fluid changes and are more mechanically complex. The average dollar savings over the lifetime of the vehicle is about $4,600.

Depreciation: CR’s analysts also found that newer long-range EVs are holding their value as well as or better than their traditional gasoline-powered counterparts as most new models now can be relied on to travel more than 200 miles on a single full charge. As with traditional gasoline-powered vehicles, not all EVs will lose value at the same rate as they age. Class, features, and the reputation of the vehicle’s manufacturer all have an impact on depreciation.

______

______ 

Section-13

EV vs. CV (ICEV):    

  

From the outside, the electric vehicle looks like a gasoline powered vehicle with the exception that the electric vehicle does not have a tail pipe. Internally, it is quite a different story. About 70% of an electric vehicle‘s component parts may be different from a gasoline-powered  vehicle. The electric vehicle has several unique components that serve the same function as the more common components in a gasoline-powered vehicle.

Another significant difference between electric vehicles and gasoline-powered vehicles is the number of moving parts. The electric vehicle has one moving part, the motor, whereas the gasoline-powered vehicle has hundreds of moving parts. Fewer moving parts in the electric vehicle leads to another important difference. The electric vehicle requires less periodic maintenance and is more reliable. The gasoline-powered vehicle requires a wide range of maintenance, from frequent oil changes, filter replacements, periodic tune ups, and exhaust system repairs, to the less frequent component replacement, such as the water pump, fuel pump, alternator, etc. 

The electric vehicle‘s maintenance requirements are fewer and therefore the maintenance costs are lower. The electric motor has one moving part, the shaft, which is very reliable and requires little or no maintenance. The controller and charger are electronic devices with no moving parts, and they require little or no maintenance. State-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries used in current electric vehicles are maintenance free.

_

Differences between EV and ICE vehicle: 

GASOLINE VEHICLE	FUNCTION	ELECTRIC VEHICLE
Gasoline Tank	Stores the energy to run the vehicle	Battery
Gasoline Pump	Replaces the energy to run the vehicle	Charger
Gasoline Engine	Provides the force to move the vehicle	Electric Motor
Carburettor	Controls Acceleration and speed	Controller
Alternator	Provides Power to accessories	DC/DC converter
	Converts DC to AC to power AC motor	DC/AC converter
Smog Controls	Lowers the toxicity of exhaust gasses

On a quite a few other points EV are much better than the traditional ICE vehicle:

-1. In dense and slow traffic the efficiency of an EV improves. That of an ICE vehicle goes down.

-2. The drive is much smoother, especially in towns and cities.

-3. The drive is much quieter.

-4. As good as all EVs have superior cruise control and autopilot modes. This improves road safety and you’ll arrive on your destination less tired.

-5. In towns and cities it removes a fair amount of air pollution.

______

Arthur D. Little conducted a total lifecycle economic cost and environmental impact analysis of Lithium-ion battery electric vehicles (BEVs) versus internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to further understand BEVs and their transformative potential. This study models the relative impacts of new BEVs and ICEVs in the United States for 2015, and it projects the economic and environmental impacts of BEVs and ICEVs over the entire assumed twenty-year lifetime for a US passenger vehicle. Given that this is a rapidly evolving market, this study also forecasts the economic and environmental impacts that new BEVs and ICEVs will have in 2025, taking into account salient expected developments in battery technology, vehicle range, and fuel economy standards.

The multifaceted results from this analysis include: 1) Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) representing the total lifecycle economic cost analysis, 2) Greenhouse Gas Emissions / Global Warming Potential (GWP) representing one aspect of the total lifecycle environmental impact analysis, and 3) Secondary Environmental Impacts representing another aspect of the total lifecycle environmental impact analysis. With respect to the environmental analysis and results, ADL determined that direct collateral impact to human life – defined by human toxicity potential, a secondary environmental impact – is an important consideration to be balanced against Greenhouse Gas Emissions / GWP in a comprehensive assessment of the relative environmental merits of BEVs and ICEVs.

-1. Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) – For a 2015 Compact Passenger Vehicle, the total cost of ownership over a twenty-year vehicle lifetime is $68,492 for the sample BEV model versus $47,676 for an equivalent ICEV—a 44% cost advantage for the ICEV excluding any government subsidies or incentives. For a 2015 Mid-Size Passenger Vehicle, the total cost to own a BEV is $85,854 versus $53,649 for the ICEV—a 60% cost advantage for the ICEV. Recent studies have shown that TCO of BEVs lesser than ICEVs.

-2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions / Global Warming Potential (GWP) – For a 2015 Compact Passenger Vehicle, the sample BEV model produces 105,054 pounds of greenhouse gas emissions (CO2-equivalents) over a full vehicle lifetime, whereas the equivalent ICEV produces 136,521 pounds of greenhouse gas emissions, a 23% advantage in global warming potential for the BEV. For the 2015 MidSize Passenger Vehicle, the BEV produces 122,772 pounds of CO2-equivalents, whereas the ICEV produces 151,651 pounds, a 19% advantage in global warming potential for the BEV. BEVs and ICEVs will both produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions in 2025, but the balance will still favor BEVs.

-3. Secondary Environmental Impacts – BEVs generate a host of secondary environmental impacts greater than those of ICEVs. A 2015 BEV generates enough toxicity over a vehicle’s lifetime to cause an impact to human life equivalent to 20 days of life lost to death or disability, whereas a 2015 ICEV generates enough toxicity to impact the average human life by only 6 days.

_____

Advantages of EV compared to ICE vehicles:

PEVs have several advantages. These include improved air quality, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, noise reduction, and national security benefits. According to the Center for American Progress, PEVs are an important part of the group of technologies that will help the U.S. meet its goal under the Paris Agreement, which is a 26-28 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2025.

-1. Improved air quality 

Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. However, like ICE cars, electric cars emit particulates from brake and tyres. Depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants where they can be more easily captured from flue gases. Cities with chronic air pollution problems, such as Los Angeles, México City, Santiago, Chile, São Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok and Kathmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities.

-2. Lower greenhouse gas emissions

Plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. This fact has been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug-in electric vehicles. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.  In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.

The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; similarly, most regions of Canada are primarily powered with hydroelectricity, nuclear, or natural gas which have no or very low emissions at the point of generation; and the state of California, where most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The United Kingdom also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as low carbon sources such as wind turbines dominate the generation mix. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.

Lifecycle GHG emissions are complex to calculate, but compared to ICE cars generally while the EV battery causes higher emissions during vehicle manufacture this excess carbon debt is paid back after several months of driving.

-3. Lower operating and maintenance costs

Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motors, on the other hand, are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking. Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.

The operating cost of the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid in the U.S. is estimated at US$0.03 per mile while operating in all-electric mode. All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems onboard last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.

-4. Less dependence on imported oil

For many developing countries, and particularly for the poorest African countries, oil imports have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments, all leading to lower economic growth.

Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine vehicles for electric cars and plug-in hybrids, electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply.

-5. Vehicle-to-grid

Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power grid, thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks. A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S. this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car. In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.

_

Disadvantages of EV over ICEV:

-1. The main drawback of an electric vehicle is the energy storage system, the high voltage battery.

Energy density of EV battery low:

Compared to gasoline (petrol) and diesel fuels, for the same volume, the energy stored in a battery is around 10 times less. In the figure below we can see that batteries have bigger volume, mass and store less energy compared with gasoline and diesel fuel.

The poor energy density of the battery has a direct impact on the vehicle range. For a battery electric vehicle, with the current performance of battery cells, in order to have a decent range (above 200 – 300 km), the high voltage battery pack will turn out to be quite heavy and bulky. Also, in cold environments, the range of an electric vehicle is further decreased due to the degradation of battery performance (due to low temperatures) and significant usage of the electrical energy for heating (cabin, battery).

The recharge time of the battery is another major drawback of a battery electric vehicle. If for an internal combustion engine powered vehicle fuel refilling takes on average around 5 minutes, in case of a battery powered vehicle the recharge can take between 30 minutes (“fast charging”) and 8 – 10 hours (“normal charging”).

Another concern of the battery powered vehicles is the charge/recharge cycle. If the battery is often charged with a high current (“fast charging” method) the energy storage capacity decreases in time. 

-2. Cost of batteries

As of 2020, plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.

Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) concludes that battery costs are on a trajectory to make electric vehicles without government subsidies as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by 2022. BNEF projects that by 2040, long-range electric cars will cost less than US$22,000 expressed in 2016 dollars. BNEF expects electric car battery costs to be well below US$120 per kWh by 2030, and to fall further thereafter as new chemistries become available.

-3, Availability of recharging infrastructure

Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed. Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence, in commercial or public parking lots, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called range anxiety.  Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers. However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.

-4. Potential overload of the electrical grid

The existing electrical grid, and local transformers in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighbourhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight when rates are lower.

-5. Risks associated with noise reduction

Electric cars and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal combustion engine, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects. However, blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence plug-in electric cars and conventional hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds. Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired. At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise. Therefore in the 2010s laws were passed in many countries mandating warning sounds at low speeds.

-6. Risks of battery fire

Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion. To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range. When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Especially prone to thermal runaway are lithium-ion batteries.

Several plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place since the introduction of mass-production plug-in electric vehicles in 2008. Most of them have been thermal runaway incidents related to the lithium-ion batteries. Both General Motors and Nissan have published a guide for firefighters and first responders to properly handle a crashed plug-in electric-drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems. Electric vehicle fires pose safety risks to first responders and guidelines from manufacturers about how to deal with them have been inadequate, according to U.S. investigators. There are also gaps in industry safety standards and research on high-voltage lithium-ion battery fires, especially in high-speed, severe crashes, the National Transportation Safety Board said recently.

-7. Car dealers’ reluctance to sell

With the exception of Tesla Motors, almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships, so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles, and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug-in electric vehicles. Dealers decide which cars they want to stock, and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase. Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales. As with any new technology, and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles, retailers are central to ensuring that buyers, especially those switching to a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology.

There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as a gasoline-powered cars. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales. One in six Cadillac dealers decided to close rather than follow the brand’s recommendations and start selling electric cars. Simply put, when you take maintenance out of the equation, there’s not much in it for dealers.  

______

CNG vs EV:

CNG vehicles have some very clear advantages over EVs. They are, comparatively, far less expensive to buy. These also come with the dual-fuel option which means in case CNG levels run out, one can always switch to petrol. Goodbye range anxieties.

EVs however do hit back in many other ways. These are clean vehicles in the truest sense and zero emission levels is a mighty feature to have in a resume. These also offer better drive capabilities and usually always have better performance (acceleration, NVH levels) than their petrol/diesel counterparts. Boot space is not compromised with a bulky cylinder and lower running and maintenance costs means that if one keeps a vehicle for at least eight to 10 years, it could work out to be a practical decision.

Should you buy an EV then?

Absolutely if it is a lifestyle choice aimed at protecting our planet. Absolutely if highway runs are rather limited. And absolutely if performance and ride comfort are high on the list of priorities.

Or should you just go in for a CNG vehicle instead?

Buying a CNG vehicle is also doing a small bit for the environment but this decision makes far more sense for those on an absolutely tight budget. Most kits are now developed to an extent which means sacrifice in performance is very marginal and if that is fine, these vehicles continue to make a whole lot of sense. No, they can’t be refilled at home. And no, they can’t accommodate big bags – not in the boot at least. But these do seek to provide a middle path in many ways.

______

______

Section-14

Challenges, limitations and benefits of EV adoption: 

_

Battery-powered electric vehicles are expected to reach a milestone in terms of shipments, but the technology faces several significant hurdles to gain wider adoption in the market.

Limited driving range, high costs, battery issues, and a spotty charging infrastructure are the main challenges for battery electric vehicles (BEVs). In addition, there are issues with various power semiconductors and other devices.

This helps explain why hybrid vehicles, which run on both battery and gasoline, today are more popular than battery-only electric cars. But carmakers and several China-based vendors are accelerating their efforts in the BEV market amid rapid growth in China and elsewhere. Worldwide production of battery-electric cars reached 2 million mark in 2019, compared to 1.39 million vehicles produced in 2018. By 2030, some 30% of all cars are expected to be electric, according to the International Energy Agency.

This sounds impressive, but electric vehicles represent only 1% to 3% of all passenger cars today. It’s absolutely taking off with high compound annual growth rates, but it comes from a very small base. Still, the portion of battery-electric vehicles compared to the overall number of vehicles made is very small.

_

Some regions are growing faster than others. For example, China, the world’s largest electric car market, has formulated a national policy around the technology due to environmental issues. China’s share of the electric vehicle market is expected to reach 57% in 2019, up from 55.5% in 2018, according to Frost & Sullivan. If you walk out of the airport in Shenzhen, China, for example, 90% of all taxis are electric vehicles. By 2021, every single bus in China will need to be pure electric. China can steer the direction quite easily through government legislation. That’s not so easy to do in Europe or North America. 

_

Still, BEVs face several challenges to gain more traction in all regions. While they may be great in terms of sustainability and having a lower impact on the environment, there are some trade-offs involved. For most people, when they think of battery-electric vehicles, they are thinking short ranges, high costs, and maybe the need to have a charging station installed in home. There are pre-conceptions that probably prevent certain consumers from even considering an electric vehicle.

Some of those perceptions are off-base, while others are not. Nonetheless, BEV makers face many of the same technical and cost challenges as traditional vehicles. There are some high hurdles to overcome in terms of reliability, qualification and functional safety. And there are some relatively high cost pressures.

All told, BEVs and the infrastructure must improve. Otherwise, it will remain a niche market. Even market leader Tesla faces some headwinds amid cost, quality and profitability issues.

Figure below shows Growth of car market:

_

Batteries and charging issues aren’t the only challenges. Improving the efficiency, reliability and the cost of the sub-systems and devices are also critical. 

Assuring reliability in automotive electronics is critical for all cars, particularly BEVs. Many new electrical parts are being upgraded and added into major sub-systems, such as ADAS, infotainment and the electrical power train.

There are other reliability issues. One of the biggest challenges for EVs and hybrids is how the microcontroller can optimize the power efficiency for all of the different components inside the EV, from high- to low-end designs to ensure long-term design flexibility. Power conversion systems are essential and important to modern EVs. Robustness and reliability of the integrated power devices are key challenges for automotive power IC designs and manufacturing. Also, on-chip memory solutions need to comply with the AEC-Q100 standard in order to satisfy the stringent operating temperature specifications.

Making the car more efficient is also critical. For this, the industry is focusing on the three main power blocks in a system—the on-board charger, the DC-to-DC converter, and the traction inverter.

Self-driving cars?

The traction inverter and charger are a work in progress in BEVs. Then, for all cars, the next big things are self-driving cars and advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) technologies.

Self-driving cars are still in R&D, but ADAS is already here. ADAS involves various safety features in a car, such as automatic emergency braking, lane detection and rear object warning.

_____

Hurdles in key EV factors:

Factor	Hurdles
Recharging	Weight of charger, durability, cost, recycling, size, charging time
Hybrid EV	Battery, durability, weight, cost
Hydrogen fuel cell	Cost, hydrogen production, infrastructure, storage, durability, reliability
Auxiliary power unit	Size, cost, weight, durability, safety, reliability, cooling, efficiency

______

Challenges in the deployment of electric vehicle fleets:

A number of factors can hamper or attenuate a larger scale deployment of electric vehicles. They can be grouped into factors that influence on the one hand the attractiveness of the EV for potential customers and subsequently the field experience of the EV users, and on the other hand the commercial interest of the industry to invest in EV development, manufacturing, sales as well as in re-charging and maintenance networks.

The customer interest will be amongst others determined by:

-1.  Purchase price or lease costs

-2. Total cost of ownership

-3.  Market offers (brands, models, trim levels etc.)

-4.  Driving experience

-5. Convenience of re-charging

-6.  Safety perception

-7.  Familiarity with EV technology

The commercial interest of the industry will be constrained by:

-1. Potential EV market size and its uncertainty

-2. Profit margin

-3. Investment needs

-4. Supply risks

-5. Risk averseness.

_ 

Most experts are in agreement that the technology costs and here mainly the battery costs make the currently offered EVs uncompetitive for the mainstream market when compared with conventional vehicles, even when total cost of ownership (TCO) is taken into consideration. Once, this initial barrier can be overcome learning effects and further technology progress could lead to acceptable payback periods for rational customers in the long term (Thiel et al., 2010). An important factor for the TCO is the residual value of the car. The residual value of EVs is strongly influenced by the expected durability and lifetime of the batteries. Appropriate warranty schemes can help to alleviate related customer concerns. As many private customers do not necessarily perform a TCO calculation but focus very much on the purchase price during their purchase decision, the higher purchase price will remain an attenuating factor in the longer term.

_

Driving range limitations of fully electric vehicles are a critical factor when comparing to conventional vehicles. Although this factor might not play a big role in the urban and sub-urban context for most of the vehicle users today, it can prevent potential customers from choosing an EV if they are unwilling to compromise vis-à-vis current conventional vehicle ranges. Fast charging or battery swapping could be one possibility to overcome this negative aspect of today’s EVs. Other driving aspects like limited top speed and other typical characteristics of EV driving are not expected to create major acceptance problems for EVs, in particular in the urban and sub-urban context.

_

EVs are a new vehicle propulsion technology that requires the set-up of a new re-fuelling or in this case re-charging infrastructure in parallel to the vehicle technology deployment. Research work by Flynn (2002), and Struben and Sterman (2008) have studied in more detail the interaction between infrastructure and vehicle deployment. The main lessons that can be learned from these studies are that a strong synchronisation is needed regarding an adequate coverage of re-charging points and the deployment of electrified vehicles. As electricity distribution systems are abundant especially in urban and sub-urban areas, the main challenges remain with the actual set-up of re-charging points and associated to this the setting up of standardised re-charging interfaces, vehicle to grid communication protocols as well as billing procedures and payment schemes. All these aspects need to be carefully addressed to ensure convenient EV re-charging for the EV user. In the urban context adequate re-charging solutions need to be found for city dwellers that have no possibility to re-charge their EV at home.

_

An important aspect for the potential EV users is that the EVs fulfil the same high safety standards as the conventional vehicle options. The fact that the recently launched EVs fulfil all pertinent safety standards for vehicles and also achieved a high EURO-NCAP rating should positively influence the safety perception of EVs. Nevertheless, some further work needs to be done on improving or creating EV safety, electromagnetic interference and health standards.

Before a larger deployment of EVs is reached, the familiarity of the broader public with this new propulsion technology can be a challenge. The familiarity can be increased through dedicated marketing and media campaigns before a critical mass of EVs is on the road and word of mouth enhances further the public attention.

_

The future market size of EVs is unknown and predictions are highly uncertain. In the past, there have been examples of unsuccessful attempts to bring BEVs into the market. Some of these attempts were accompanied by optimistic outlooks on the future deployment of electromobility; however, a broader EV roll-out did not become reality (Frery, 2000). This uncertainty reduces the willingness of the industry to invest into EV and its related infrastructure. As the automotive industry and the needed infrastructure investment is capital intensive, the industry players are rather risk adverse in this context.

_

The profit margin for the first EVs will be low. As a matter of fact, it can be expected that the first generation of EVs that are currently deployed will constitute a negative business case for the industry that can be justified as an upfront investment into a potential future growth market. Although, many manufacturers are preparing for entering the EV market, they will try to limit their investment risk by deploying a limited number of models in the beginning. This limits the offered choices and can turn away potential customers that have a certain affinity to specific brands or models. Another possibility for the manufacturers to limit their investment needs in the beginning is to share common component sets across brands (e.g., Mitsubishi i-MIEV, Citroen C-Zero, Peugeot iOn) or to focus their deployment on selected lead-markets. The latter option will on the one hand limit the necessary investments in the dealer and maintenance network, but on the other hand also reduce the number of potential customers. The re-charging infrastructure providers will also want to ensure an adequate return on their investment which could potentially lead to unsatisfactory infrastructure coverage in the beginning.

Supply chains need to be built up for the new EV specific technologies and components. This can slow down the ramp-up of the EV deployment in the beginning but should not lead to a sustained supply bottleneck. Material bottlenecks are expected to become an issue for permanent magnet motors (e.g., neodymium) and some cathode materials for lithium ion batteries (e.g. Cobalt) (European Commission, 2010b).

______

Challenges for The EV Market in India:

-1.  Inadequate charging infrastructure

-2. Reliance on battery imports

-3. Reliance on imported components and parts

-4. Incentives linked to local manufacturing

-5. Range anxiety among consumers

-6. High price of EVs currently

-7. Lack of options for high-performance EVs

-8. Inadequate electricity supply in parts of India

-9. Lack of quality maintenance and repair options

-10. Affected by broader automobile industry downturn

______

______

Limitations of EV:

Figure below shows social, technological, and economic problems faced by EVs.

_

Tentative solutions of current limitations of EVs:  

Limitation	Probable Solution
Limited range	Better energy source and energy management technology
Long charging period	Better charging technology
Safety problems	Advanced manufacturing scheme and build quality
Insufficient charging stations	Placement of sufficient stations capable of providing services to all kinds of vehicles
High price	Mass production, advanced technology, government incentives

______

______

Issues facing Electric Vehicles:

Fun to drive and cheaper to operate, electric vehicles have grown in popularity considerably in recent years. However, automakers still need to overcome some hurdles before they’re broadly adopted. It’s important to consider these issues before buying an electric vehicle to make sure it is the right choice for you.

If any of these issues seems too daunting at the moment, wait a few years. The electric vehicle market, technology, and infrastructure are maturing and advancing quite quickly.

-1. Electric Vehicle driving range:

Although the range of most electric vehicle models has improved significantly in just a few short years, a limited driving range does present a challenge to many drivers. The range on the 2020 Nissan Leaf is 150 miles, and the Tesla Model 3 (extended range) is up to 370 miles. Although this is conducive to in-town driving, it can present challenges on longer drives or in colder weather. A cross-country trip in an electric vehicle would require some careful planning and likely some inconvenient stops. A study by AAA found that vehicle range went down by 41 percent when the temperature dipped to 20 degrees Fahrenheit and the heat was on. Thankfully, automakers have responded by adding bigger batteries with greater driving ranges. As lithium-ion battery technology improves, this will become less of an issue for electric vehicle owners soon.

-2. Batteries will wear out:

Most all-electric models haven’t been around long enough to rack up an excessive amount of miles, and there are many complex variables related to battery degradation. Nonetheless, an ongoing study of Tesla vehicles shows that after 150,000 miles, most batteries have lost only 8% of their capacity. At this rate, these batteries could retain 80% capacity at 500,000 miles and potentially last well over one million miles. The average lifespan of a gas car is about 140,000 miles.

-3. Charging Time:

The amount of time it takes to charge a car depends on the battery capacity and the speed of the charger. A standard wall charger can take 8 hours to charge a Tesla Model S, whereas a supercharger would take 1 hour. Many chargers that you will encounter out and about will take at least 2 hours to charge a discharged battery fully. Many shopping centers and public parking lots have electric vehicle chargers, and you might be able to charge your car conveniently while sticking to your regular schedule. In other instances, you might be killing time in order to get from point A to point B. Charging at home or work is still the most convenient option when possible.

-4. Lack of Charging Infrastructure:

This hurdle really varies by location. If you can charge at home and/or work and you don’t travel long distances, you might be all set. Some city or apartment dwellers, unfortunately, aren’t able to charge at home due to a lack of driveway or garage. Instead, they must rely on public chargers in parking garages and shopping centers — or agreements with friends or neighbours. Even if vehicle chargers are conveniently located, they might be occupied. Tesla drivers have the added advantage of being able to use Tesla Supercharger Stations.

The electric vehicle charging infrastructure varies widely by area, but this is an important consideration before buying an electric vehicle.

In some areas, such as California and other CARB states, public chargers are more plentiful. In other areas, this is not the case, though charging stations are becoming much more common on major road-trip routes throughout the country. The good news is that many employers, as well as hotels, businesses, and even gas stations, are installing chargers too.

-5. Limited Vehicle Choices:

Looking back, 2019 was a crucial year for the electric vehicle market. Many new models were released, and car shoppers have more models to choose from than ever before. Ford is working on introducing the all-electric F-150 pickup and the Mustang Mach-E, a crossover SUV. General Motors is planning to launch an electric pickup in 2021 as well. Despite significant progress, there are still way fewer electrified models to choose from and even fewer larger vehicles.

-6. Higher Upfront Cost:

Many of us associate high price tags with electric vehicles — and that can be an issue for the budget-minded. Although a high-end Tesla costs a pretty penny, many other models are pretty cost-competitive. The Nissan Leaf and Hyundai Ioniq start at around $30,000, but they both have ranges under 200 miles.

The good news is that electric vehicles are coming down in cost when compared to their gas-powered counterparts. Also, tax credits and state incentives can take a chunk out of the total cost.

Electricity is much cheaper than gas, and EVs are highly efficient, so it will cost you much less per mile to drive an electric car. EVs also require very little maintenance. There are fewer moving parts, and few fluids to change. Moreover, electric motors tend to work for a very long time without any routine upkeep. For example, the Chevrolet Bolt requires almost zero maintenance for the first 150,000 miles.

In addition to saving money on gas and service, most electric vehicles qualify for a tax rebate of up to $7,500 from the U.S. government. If you factor in these savings over the life of the vehicle, EVs may not be more expensive to own.

The tax credit will eventually disappear, but battery prices are dropping. Additionally, when automakers begin to make EVs in greater volume, production costs will eventually decline to reach price parity with traditional vehicles.

You can also consider a gently used electric car. Electric car depreciation is fairly high right now, so used electric cars are generally inexpensive.

-7. Difficulty finding a Mechanic:

Although electric cars require less maintenance and fewer repairs, it is still important to find a qualified mechanic in your area. Unfortunately, 97 percent of mechanics are not qualified to work on electric vehicles. Of the 3 percent that is, many of them work for dealerships. Although there are a lot of hybrid vehicles on the road, they require maintenance regimes similar to typical gas-powered vehicles. This means that people who are experienced working on hybrid cars are not necessarily knowledgeable about all-electric models.

-8. Safety Concerns:

The concerns about safety are rising mainly about the FCVs nowadays. There are speculations that, if hydrogen escapes the tanks it is kept into, can cause serious harm, as it is highly flammable. It has no color either, making a leak hard to notice. There is also the chance of the tanks to explode in case of a collision. To counter these problems, the automakers have taken measures to ensure the integrity of the tanks; they are wrapped with carbon fibers in case of the Toyota Mirai. In this car, the hydrogen handling parts are placed outside the cabin, allowing the gas to disperse easily in case of any leak, there are also arrangements to seal the tank outlet in case of high-speed collision.

-9. Social Problems:

The acceptance of a new and immature technology, along with its consequences, takes some time in the society as it means change of certain habits. Using an EV instead of a conventional vehicle means change of driving patters, refueling habits, preparedness to use an alternative transport in case of low battery, and these are not easy to adopt.

-10. Convenience:

The higher energy density of gasoline and its relative cheapness are two key reasons why the world still prefers dirty, polluting gas-powered SUVs over clean, green eco machines like the Toyota Prius and the Nissan Leaf. But the sheer convenience of the “oil economy” is important too. Wherever you live, you’re never that far from a gas station. Figures from the US Census Bureau reveal that there are some 111,000 gas stations across the United States. By comparison, according to the Alternative Fuels Data Center, as of 2019, there are merely 25,950 electric charging stations (significantly up from 17,387 in 2018). Now while it’s true that you can charge your car at home or work if you happen to have the right equipment, you also need to charge up when you’re on the road, and so far the world simply isn’t geared up for that: if you’re driving a car, it’s assumed to be a gas-powered one.

-11. Status quo:  

While fuel and running costs are lower for electric cars, the initial purchase price is often considerably higher; a 2020 Ford Fusion plug-in hybrid will cost around $37,000, whereas a comparable gasoline model will come in at about $28,000.  Concerns about things like battery life also make it harder for people to take the plunge. Sticking with what you know is always easier than taking an expensive risk. Some countries offer tax breaks for electric cars, but you still have to face that higher purchase price to begin with.

-12. Range Anxiety:  

Range anxiety is the fear that a vehicle has insufficient range to reach its destination and would thus strand the vehicle’s occupants. The term, which is primarily used in reference to battery electric vehicles, is considered to be one of the major barriers to large scale adoption of all-electric cars. One of the main concerns for EV buyers is range. Few electric cars can match the range of most gas-powered vehicles. With that said, range is growing for fully electric vehicles. Most current EVs offer more than enough range to cover the average driver’s daily commute and responsibilities. The Nissan Leaf is rated at up to 226 miles, the Chevrolet Bolt has a 259-mile range, the Hyundai Kona Electric offers 258 miles, and all Tesla vehicles eclipse 300 miles on a full charge. The Tesla Model S Long Range just achieved an EPA-estimated 402 miles of range, which far exceeds every EV to date. It should be noted that, in some cases, you have to choose a higher trim level to get the most range.

-13. From range anxiety to charger anxiety:

As the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) continues to accelerate, charging stations of all manner and size will become more prevalent in day-to-day life. And while some areas remain underserved by the number of stations available to drivers, those EV drivers who reside in areas with adequate charging infrastructure are becoming less concerned with finding a charge and more concerned with the station being operational when they arrive. This is charger anxiety, and it is among the largest barriers to the continued adoption of electric vehicles in North America.

For example, imagine a driver is on their way to visit relatives in a city that is several hours away, and they intend to stop at a DC Fast Charger; however, when they do, they find that the charger is not operational. Maybe the station has malfunctioned, or maybe the cable attaching the station to the vehicle has been vandalized; whatever the case, station unavailability, called downtime, is a significant issue for everyone involved in the charging ecosystem, from the driver, to the site host to the station manufacturer. Downtime is the ultimate cause of charger anxiety, and this phenomenon is in large part responsible for the growing interest in the reliability of charging infrastructure.

-14. Fire Hazard:

Due to a handful of highly publicized electric vehicle crashes that resulted in fires, some people believe EVs are a fire hazard. However, every day there are countless vehicle fires from crashes involving gas cars, but few make the news since it’s so common.

The batteries used in EVs are the same lithium-ion variety found in laptops and cell phones. While there is always a chance any electronic device could catch fire, how often do we worry about our laptops or mobile devices spontaneously combusting? On the other hand, you’d better bet most people are careful when it comes to gasoline due to its highly flammable properties and the potential for a fire hazard.

-15. Subpar Performance:    

When electrified vehicles first came to market, some people jokingly compared them to golf carts. This is because efficiency was more important than performance. Let’s face it: the Toyota Prius and first-gen Nissan Leaf aren’t speed demons. In addition, they’re small cars with arguably polarizing exteriors.

Today’s EVs are much more advanced, and it’s becoming more common to find EV powertrains in sporty cars and SUVs. Their electric propulsion systems provide instant torque and impressive zero-to-60-mph times, which is a metric you will certainly notice in daily driving. Tesla’s vehicles can easily outrun most gas-powered supercars, and for a lower price. While many electric cars still don’t offer top speeds comparable to gas cars, unless you’re breaking the law, you probably won’t notice.

-16. High Electric Bill:

Electricity prices vary widely from state to state. Still, paying for electricity, even in the most expensive states, is over 50% cheaper than paying for gasoline. If you charge a short-range EV or a plug-in hybrid at home, you may not even notice the marginal increase to your electric bill. A long-range electric vehicle will cost you more to charge, but it’s still no comparison to the price of gas – even when gas prices are at record lows. According to the EPA, charging an EV like the Chevrolet Bolt, Nissan Leaf, or Tesla Model 3 only costs about $500 per year. You could save $4,000 over five years if you choose an electric car instead of a gas-powered model.

-17. Limited Cargo Capacity:

Some electric cars have reduced cargo space due to the placement of their battery pack. This was especially true of earlier models when the battery was retrofitted into an existing car platform.

Today, most automakers have moved to a new architecture specifically designed to accommodate batteries. “Skateboard” style battery packs fit beneath the car’s floor, freeing up capacity. In fact, due to this design, Tesla vehicles have two trunks, and both the Chevrolet Bolt and Nissan Leaf offer more cargo space than many gas-only competitors.

-18. The zero-carbon fantasy:

Even 100% electric vehicles are not a zero-carbon solution. They may not produce the usual exhaust pipe emissions, but even if all of the UK’s electricity was from renewable sources, there would still be an environmental cost.

Sourcing the minerals used for batteries, dismantling batteries which have deteriorated, and building and delivering vehicles to customers worldwide all involve substantial CO2 emissions. It is impossible to break all of the links.

A large shift away from motorised vehicles is the only way to fundamentally reduce transport’s contribution to climate change, however hard and politically unpalatable that may be.

_______

_______

Why consumers avoid electric cars:

EV sales remain paltry in the US despite tax credits and other discounts, but a new study aimed to uncover the major factors the internal-combustion engine reigns supreme.

According to the latest findings from Autolist, the reasons aren’t that shocking. Electric cars’ overall range, their price compared to a traditional car and charging infrastructure are the top reasons why consumers shun an EV; the time it takes to charge an electric car and an overall lack of knowledge rounded out the top five reasons why consumers aren’t interested in an electric vehicle.

_

Electric Cars may fail commercially:  

A new survey indicates that more automakers than not think battery electric vehicles will fail commercially — and most drivers don’t want to buy one.

According to a new survey of almost 1,000 automotive executives and about 2,100 consumers around the world, more people than not think pure battery electric vehicles (BEVs) will fail commercially because of infrastructure challenges or slow recharging times — and almost no one admitted plans to actually drive one off the lot any time soon.

KPMG released its annual Global Automotive Executive Survey recently with those facts and plenty more. Among them: About half of all consumer respondents globally said they would opt for either a hybrid electric (33%) or a plugin hybrid electric (17%) over a BEV. Here in the United States, a majority of consumers said they would just stick with their internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle, thanks.

“The internal combustion engine isn’t perfect, but U.S. consumers will continue to stick with what they know and have come to rely on,” said Gary Silberg, the automotive sector leader at KPMG. “Until the value propositions for alternative powertrains become crystal clear to them, consumers will make decisions based on convenience and the overall economics of owning a car — and right now a traditional vehicle still comes out on top for the vast majority of people.”

Perhaps the biggest roadblock is that just 13% of consumer respondents — and just 5% of those surveyed from America — said they would actually purchase a BEV in the next five years. Battery charge was cited most often as the reason for steering clear, but it was hardly the only one. Most drivers focus only on the bottom line: 67% of consumers surveyed said they don’t care about drivetrain technology. Just give them the most durable, cost-competitive solution that can move them from point A to point B.

Because of uncertainty over future technology, about four of every five Americans who currently drive a BEV lease their vehicle. The resale value of BEVs also drops far more precipitously than ICE vehicles: According to a recent Bloomberg report, BEV compacts sold in 2014 are only worth 23% of their original sticker price, while comparable ICE vehicles are still worth about 41% of what they originally cost on the lot.

______

Why shouldn’t you buy an Electric Car?

EVs cost more to purchase, on average, than equivalent gasoline-powered cars, and despite significant advances in range, they might not be ideal for some one-car households. Plug-in hybrids solve the range problem, but they still require a place to plug in to take full advantage of their propulsion system. This can be a challenge for people who live in multiunit dwellings or who don’t have access to off-street parking. Electric vehicle owners need to have ready access to an outlet (or a 240-volt EV charger) and a parking spot for overnight charging, unless they are relying entirely on workplace charging. For EV drivers, planning when and where the car will be charged is a constant part of ownership.

Unlike refuelling a gas car, which takes only a few minutes, recharging an EV can take 25 to 60 minutes (depending on the battery size and charging speed) using fast chargers in public places. Under normal circumstances, it takes about 10 hours to recharge an EV using Level 2 (240-volt) chargers when the battery is near empty. Note also that in cold weather or extreme heat, a vehicle’s range drops off dramatically because of the physical limitations of battery chemistry.

The Main Questions to ask yourself:

How many miles do I drive each day?

Do I have regular access to charging at home or at work?

How much would the electricity cost?

Do I need a faster charging option, or can I charge overnight with a regular outlet?

How often do I travel beyond the electric range?

Are there public charging stations in my local area or travel corridors?

______

Is Electric car a waste of money in hot climate?

As the senior engineer in the Honda’s European research and development facility, Brachmann is a fan of fuel cell vehicles like the Honda Clarity, but he doesn’t have much time for battery-electric cars like the Mitsubishi iMiEV and Nissan Leaf.

Especially for a hot climate, which presents a lose-lose situation because heat undermines a battery’s ability to take on full charge. And to keep it cool, you have to draw on its reserves of that charge – and of range.

“It’s first of all a waste of money to buy an electric car, because the hotter it is, the more auxiliaries you have – the airconditioning, everything is running on electricity,” Brachmann says. “And the more you demand, the more is consumed, and the less range you have. “For one specific electric vehicle already on the market, ranges have been measured in the one car between 37 and 100km, depending on conditions.”

Brachmann thinks the heat poses a severe limitation for the vehicles in Australia, especially in their summer months – or for anybody who has to park outside. “The optimum temperature range the battery would most like to live in is between 10 and 35-40 degrees maximum,” he says. Anything outside that, and you start losing efficiency in charging – or have to chew into the charge to aircondition the battery’s surroundings.

“If you park your car in an area where the battery can heat up, then you have to take measures to protect the battery,” Brachmann says. “Either it has to be under cover, or the system has temperature sensors and initiates its own cooling – but draws on its power reserve to do so.” He says that means either a roof of solar cells, or having to stay plugged into a charging source while parked so a cooling system can keep the battery in shape.

Brachmann says our climate will also make any visions of quick-charging infrastructure equally difficult. “For the quick-charging systems one has to also understand that quick-charging requires quite temperate battery,” he says. “The temperature of the battery should not be too high, otherwise it does not pick up any of the additional energy from the grid – or quick-charging turns out to be slow-charging. There are ideas existing that you drive to the next filling station where you can recharge your car on fast-fill, go for a coffee (while you wait) and then you can continue for another 100km. But it will happen that one coffee will become three coffees or four or five…”

And Brachmann says the alternative ‘refueling’ system for battery-electric cars – the battery swapping station – is not a convenient solution either. “Battery-swapping infrastructure is not so easy because then all carmakers have to agree on one battery format,” he says. “Or a dealership is providing the swapping and that requires quick connectors – half an hour is the maximum we think a customer would be happy with.”

But he says most of the batteries being designed for battery-electric cars will take much longer than that to swap over. “You can have a fast-swap system if you have a battery that requires a cooling circuit – if it is air-cooled – this would not be a problem. But none of the energy density batteries (planned for future electric vehicles) will be air-cooled.”

______

Why should you buy an Electric Car? 

In order to transition to electric cars, it’s key to recognize what car buyers find appealing:

-1. They’re super cheap to run

This is perhaps one of the most alluring electric car benefits that converts drivers to the EV ownership. Gas prices fluctuate in most areas of the world – an average of $2.50 a gallon in the US is pricey enough for most consumers – but the situation can be even more eye-watering elsewhere. In the UK, for example, you can pay up to £1.30 per litre for gasoline. Translated to US gallons and dollars, that works out to be $6.40 per gallon!

Electricity, however, is almost universally cheap as a mode of powering your car. In the US, the average cost of a kilowatt-hour works out to be 13.2 cents. A typical large EV such as the Tesla Model S will comfortably do 3 miles per kWh consumed, meaning you’re paying just 4.4 cents per mile travelled! Compare that to a typical sedan that does 25MPG at the national average of $2.50 per gallon, and you reach a figure of 10 cents per mile – over double the amount. In Europe where gasoline is typically far more expensive, it’s not hard to imagine how substantial the savings can be. When combined with a home solar system, “fuel” costs could be completely eliminated, although it can take some time to recoup the cost of installing solar panels.

It’s not just an EV’s “juice” that works out to be easier on the wallet – the general servicing and maintenance is also a lot cheaper, because you have far fewer moving parts under the hood. No oil changes, no spark plug changes, no rusting exhaust pipes – the list goes on. Besides the basic wear-and-tear, the running costs are going to be significantly lower, no matter what electric car you choose.

-2. Instant torque whenever you demand

Not so long ago, the stereotype of an electric car was that it was slow — like a golf cart. Today, that couldn’t be further from the truth. Modern EVs are often way quicker than their standard gasoline-powered counterpart. Take the Tesla Model 3 Performance, for example. With a 0-60MPH time of 3.2 seconds, it actually puts many exotic supercars to shame. In fact, direct gasoline-powered competitors (in the same price range) would be lucky to crack 60MPH in under 6 seconds.

It’s not just outright acceleration, either; electric motors provide instant torque as soon as you want it. In a conventional car you’ll need the engine to take its sweet time to shift into the right gear to achieve maximum speed. In contrast, electric vehicles are: push the pedal and go. Even more modest EVs like the Nissan Leaf and Chevy Bolt can feel incredibly zippy. Most EVs provide instant power and can be fun to drive.

-3. Unique features

-EVs are quiet because of their lack of engine noise.

-Charging at home is convenient.

-4. Less pollution

EVs produce no particulate or smog-causing tailpipe emissions, which are a significant contributing factor in causing asthma and other air pollution-related illnesses. EVs have lower carbon emissions than gasoline powered vehicles over their service life.

______

______

Quantifying the Societal Benefits of Electric Vehicles, a 2016 study:

One of the barriers facing the electric vehicle market is the incremental cost of the vehicles. However, many of the benefits of electric vehicles are not well understood and are omitted from cost-benefit analyses. These benefits relate to human health, air quality and the environment, economic growth, and grid resilience. VEIC conducted a study to identify the broad range of benefits that electric vehicles provide and, where sufficient data exists, developed estimates to quantify these benefits. Assessing the value of these benefits provides guidance for policy-makers to determine incentive and investment levels that accurately reflect the full value of electric vehicles to society. 

Figure below shows Compiled EV Benefits over 10 Years & 120,000 miles

Figure above illustrates the aggregated benefits of an electric vehicle over its life. The maintenance and fuel savings of the EV (totalling $5,618) are participant benefits and are realized by the vehicle owner. The environment, health, national security and economic development benefits (totalling $6,785) are societal benefits which are dispersed throughout society and not currently captured and realized directly by any single party. The EV owner creates this value to society by choosing and driving an EV, but does not receive compensation for this value. For this reason, this analysis provides a useful tool for policymakers to identify and capture the broader benefits of EVs and facilitate the appropriate incentive values to reflect a more accurate value of EVs and leverage that value to reduce the incremental cost of EVs in the marketplace. 

Grid resource benefits are estimated and included in this analysis, but are not currently available to utilities and EV owners through bidirectional charging. They are shown in figure above, but should not yet be taken into consideration when weighing the costs and benefits of purchasing an EV. As a result, one should conclude that the cumulative benefits of owning and operating an EV for 10 years are estimated at roughly $12,403 without taking into account government incentives.  

When comparing the cost of purchasing an electric vehicle to a traditional gasoline vehicle, one would also want to consider additional costs on the electric vehicle side (an installed level 2 charging station – roughly $1000) as well as additional benefits (federal incentives -$7500). As Table below illustrates, while the cost of our sample gasoline-powered vehicle may initially appear to be less due to a lower purchase price ($18,640 for the Civic vs. $29,010 for the Leaf.), accounting for the operation and maintenance savings as well as the socialized costs of a traditional gasoline vehicle results in the 10-year cost of the Nissan Leaf as being $8,533 less than the Honda Civic. This number is based on current benefits and excludes benefits that may be available in the future such as grid resource benefits.  It is important to note that these benefits are not all returned to the vehicle purchaser.  The societal benefits in particular are spread out over a broad population and are more difficult to capture.

Total Ownership Cost over Life of Vehicle 

	Nissan leaf	Honda civic
Vehicle Cost	$29,010	$18,640
Charging Station Cost (including installation)	$1,000	0
Federal Incentive (U.S.)	-$7,500	0
Energy Costs	$ 2,750	$ 6,880
Socialized Environmental Costs (CO2)	0	$866
Socialized Health Costs	0	$1686
Economic Development Benefit	-$965	0
National Security Costs	0	$ 3,268
Maintenance	$ 1080	$ 2,568
Total 10 Year Cost to Owner and Society	$25,375	$33,908

_

This exercise of applying the Societal Cost Test framework to an electric vehicle as an investment has helped us develop a better understanding of, 1) the full suite of electric vehicle benefits, 2) the extent to which these benefits have been quantified in the literature, and 3) gaps in quantifying these benefits. Results from this study should provide a tool for policymakers to use in determining appropriate investment and incentive levels for electric vehicles. Appropriate investment and incentive levels for electric vehicles, in turn, will promote market transformation and facilitate the electrification of the transportation sector.

______

______

The Advantages and Benefits of e-mobility:

Ask anybody the question: “What are the benefits of e-mobility?” and it’s likely that the majority of people would mention environmental benefits and it’s happening for green-friendly reasons. Whilst, this is certainly true, there are many other advantages and benefits of e-mobility, which need to be understood too.

-1. Economic benefits:

There are numerous economic benefits, these are summarised below:

• Contribution to economic growth – the US, EU and other world governments have all issued statements reflecting that they believe e-mobility will greatly contribute to economic growth
• Employment opportunities – although fossil fuel employers will lose jobs it is forecast that overall, the e-mobility sector will generate even more employment around the world
• Lower consumer cost – the overall cost to the consumer (vehicle purchase, charging infrastructure and cost of charging) of e-vehicles is much lower than the current costs of ICE vehicles. This is especially the case where full electric vehicles are used rather than HEV and PHEV hybrid models. Add to this extra grants and incentives, such as government subsidies, lower road tax, discounts on congestion charges (in some cases), free e-vehicle parking (in some locations)
• Reduced e-vehicle maintenance costs – ICE engines are complex, with many moving parts and also require more oils and lubricants. They require regular maintenance and servicing. Electric cars, by contrast, are very simple in design with only a few moving components. This means there is much less which can go wrong, and servicing and maintenance costs will be much lower. According to a recent HPI survey, electric vehicles cost 23% less per year to maintain than their ICE equivalents

-2. Environmental benefits:

There are many environmental and green-friendly benefits, which we summarise below:

• Environmentally friendly – there are many ways in which e-mobility is green/environmentally friendly, these include:

-A move to e-mobility will help governments comply with global emissions targets (e.g., the Paris Climate Agreement). Transportation is one of the largest sources of pollution and greenhouse gas emissions around the world. The International Energy Agency suggests that around a third of cars would need to be electric in order to meet the Paris climate agreement of keeping average global temperature rise to within 2°C.

-Electricity is one of the cleaner energy sources to use

-Improved air quality through a reduction of hydrocarbons through e-mobility a carbonless alternative

-Less reliance on fossil fuels, although in hybrid models these are still used, it is still to a lower extent

-Less traffic film, which as we have previously written about, is expensive to clean and is unsightly. In major cities, potentially millions of fume-laden exhaust pipes can be replaced with millions of emission-free e-vehicles

• Reduced energy usage – e-mobility will reduce the overall energy required by electric vehicles and within the transportation sector in general
• Reduced noise pollution – e-vehicles dramatically reduce air noise pollution. This is in areas such as engine, tyres and wind passage noise. In fact, the noise reduction is so dramatic that manufacturers are looking for ways to increase air noise to reduce the risk to pedestrians of not hearing the impending arrival of an e-vehicle

-3. Technology benefits:

The advent of e-mobility demands innovation, technology benefits include:

• Encourages manufacturer innovation – electric vehicle manufacturers (particularly in automotive) are vying to stay one step ahead of each other. This is particularly leading to vast numbers of new innovations such as improved energy efficiency, higher performance levels and lighter vehicles, etc.
• Smart power grids – as a part of e-mobility, power grids around the world are being modernized to “smart power grids”. These new power grids will deliver improved efficiency of electricity delivery “in general” and not just for e-mobility

-4. Safety benefits:

In general, electric vehicles are safer than their ICE equivalent, examples of safety benefits include:

• Lower centre of gravity – this makes the vehicle more stable on the road, this is particularly important after a collision. This also rigidifies the frame and adds to the structural integrity of the vehicle
• No fuel on board – there is no combustible fuel (diesel/petrol, etc.) onboard. This reduces the risk of explosion, particularly after an accident. N.B. After an accident the electricity supply from the battery will be cut-off.
• Space converted to safety – as electric vehicles have more available space (e.g., no engine, fuel tank, etc.) there is more space available. This varies from one manufacturer to another, but with many manufacturers extra space has been converted into additional safety features (e.g., additional buffering and larger crumple zones)

_______

_______

Health benefits of EV:

Health-impacting airborne pollutants from ICE vehicles:

Not only are ICE vehicles less efficient, but the process of burning gas or diesel is also responsible for the emission of a wide range of health-affecting pollutants. Unborn and new-born children, people with chronic illnesses, and the elderly are most at risk from almost all of their effects.

The major pollutants from ICE vehicles are:

-1. Particulate matter (PM) – These are tiny particles, measuring up to 10 micrometers in size, that can seriously threaten human health because they get deep into the lungs. Particles in diesel vehicle exhaust are a major cause of PM pollution.

-2. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) – VOCs react with nitrogen oxides to form ground-level ozone, a major ingredient in smog. At ground level, ozone irritates the respiratory system, causing coughing, choking, and reduced lung capacity.  They have also been linked to some forms of cancer.

-3. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – These pollutants form ground-level ozone and particulate matter. NOx can also lead to lung irritation and make the body more susceptible to respiratory infections like pneumonia and the flu.

-4. Carbon monoxide (CO) – This poisonous gas is formed when fossil fuels like gasoline are burned, making ICE vehicles a primary cause. When inhaled, CO blocks oxygen from the brain, heart, and other vital organs.

-5. Greenhouse gases (GHG) – ICE vehicles emit carbon dioxide and other pollutants that contribute to global warming. In fact, tailpipe emissions from ICE vehicles account for over one-fifth of the United States’ total global warming pollution. Global warming is responsible for a wide range of public health risks. It has been linked to more frequent and intense heat waves such as the 2003 heatwave in Europe which caused over 20,000 premature deaths. Other extreme weather events such as flooding, droughts and sea level rises have been made more likely due to global warming and can have devastating impacts, giving rise to spikes of infectious diseases and threatening the lives of millions of people.

-6. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) – Diesel fuel contains sulfur, creating sulfur dioxide when it’s burned. SO2 can react in the atmosphere to form tiny particulate matter, posing a particular risk to young children and asthma sufferers.

_

So, what about electric vehicles? 

We know that they create zero emissions from the tailpipe, meaning that they’re not emitting any health impacting pollutants into the local atmosphere, but until our whole grid is powered by zero-emission renewable energies, surely, we’re just displacing where these emissions go.

Table below provides emissions comparison between electric vehicles and ICE vehicles running on a variety of fuels:    

VEHICLE TYPE / FUEL	Net Emissions Over Fuel Chain (1) in g/mile (2)
	SO2	NOx	CO	HC	CO2
ICE Vehicle Gasoline Methanol Ethanol CNG Hydrogen	0.20 —– 0.04 —– —–	0.63 0.86 0.52 0.40 0.61	3.43 1.71 1.90 1.70 0.02	0.35 0.35 0.13 0.16 0.75	444 408 44(3) 337 388(4)
BEV by Source Fuel Coal Natural Gas Petroleum Nuclear Adv. NG	1.73 —- 0.93 0.10 —-	0.81 0.52 0.52 0.05 0.36	0.07 0.09 0.08 —- 0.20	0.01 0.01 0.02 —- 0.07	485 302 459 25 229
Fuel Cell Vehicle Methanol Ethanol Natural Gas Hydrogen	—- 0.02 —- —-	0.27 0.08 —- 0.11	0.01 0.13 —- 0.01	—- 0.02 —- —-	236 28 196 197

(1) From primary resource extraction through vehicle end-use, except for SO2, NOx, CO2, and HC emissions, which are estimated for fuel/electricity production and vehicle tailpipe only.

(2) g/mile x 0.621 = g/km.

(3) Assumes ethanol-derived farm and conversion energy, and a zero net CO2 release from biomass conversion due to the carbon content of the biomass having been adsorbed from the environment during crop growing.

(4) Assumes hydrogen from natural gas, which releases CO2 during reforming.

Condensed from “Diverse Choices for Electric and Hybrid Motor Vehicles,” OECD paper by John J. Brogan, et al, Director, Office of Propulsion Systems, U.S. Department of Energy (1992).

As you can see from table above, coal-fired power plant generates more emissions than ICE of traditional vehicles. However, such power plants are generally outside cities, in less populated areas. As a result of this lower exposure, a shift of emissions from the road transport sector to the power generation sector can therefore be beneficial for health. Also, electrical vehicles are far more energy efficient than ICE vehicles in converting stored energy into propulsion, so on the whole, EVs charged by coal fired power plant would emit less CO2 than ICE vehicles. Note that all vehicles including EVs create some particulate matter from tire and brake wear. However, with EV’s regenerative braking systems, even these emissions are less than for ICE vehicles.

_

The urban public health benefits of EVs:

What’s currently more important from a public health perspective is that those emissions are displaced away from the areas where people live closest to vehicle traffic. This zero-tailpipe emission represents the greatest urban health benefit of EVs.

Cities all over the world, in both developing and developed countries, have in recent years suffered from air pollution levels that surpass international standards and threaten the health and lives of their citizens. The main cause of the degradation in urban air quality is road transportation by ICE vehicles.

Fann et al. (2013) estimate that ground‐level O3 and PM2.5 from mobile source emissions cause between 19,300 and 54,000 premature deaths per year in the United States. Similarly, a recent International Council on Clean Transportation report estimated that the United States experienced 22,000 transportation‐attributable ambient PM2.5 and O3 deaths in 2015 (Anenberg et al., 2019). Most recently, Davidson et al. (2020) estimated a health burden of 12,000–31,000 premature deaths in the United States for on‐road emissions alone in the year 2011. Given the magnitude of the health burden associated with ambient air pollution from traffic, reducing vehicle emissions through vehicle electrification is a clear opportunity for mitigating air pollution‐related health effects while also reducing climate forcing from CO2 and short‐lived climate pollutant emissions.

In the UK, air pollution is responsible for 40,000 premature deaths per year. A study found that the health-related costs of diesel vehicles were 20 times greater than for plug-in electric vehicles and that switching a million cars from diesel to electric would save more than £360m ($470m) in health costs from local air pollution per year.

__

Electric vehicles could benefit health more than climate, a 2019 study:

About half of the world’s electric vehicles are sold in China. It’s the largest market in the world for EVs, buoyed by government subsidies. The main goals for these incentives have been to reduce fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions. Now a new study in Nature Sustainability shows that by reducing air pollution, a growing fleet of EVs in the nation could also save thousands of lives.

If just over a quarter of privately owned cars and a slightly larger share of commercial vehicles were electric, researchers say in the study, the cuts in air pollution could avoid almost 17,500 deaths.

What’s more, “air quality and health benefits from vehicle electrification outweigh climate benefits,” says K. Max Zhang of Cornell University and a co-author on the paper. An earlier study by other researchers has showed similar health benefits of EVs in the U.S. But surprisingly, Zhang adds, “air quality benefits have never been considered in developing incentive programs for EVs in China.”

The role of EVs in improving air quality has been debated though. They don’t belch out emissions that lead to harmful smog and tiny particulate pollution. But they can increase emissions depending on where the electricity to charge them comes from; a majority of China’s electricity comes from coal-fired power plants.

For this study, Zhang, Ye Wu of Tsinghua University and their colleagues modeled two scenarios for 2030. One imagined no EVs while the other assumed 27% of private cars and a larger share of commercial vehicles, such as public buses and light-duty trucks, are electric. They considered power generation from a mix of coal and renewables, and from just those two sources.

They used an atmospheric chemistry transport model to calculate the concentrations of particulate pollution, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide for three large developed urban regions in East China: Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, Yangtze River Delta, and Pearl River Delta.

All the power generation scenarios show positive air quality and health benefits. EV adoption reduced particulate pollution nationwide, with the reduction higher in the three developed areas. Nitrogen dioxide levels went down even more, and fell the most in the populated cities of Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou. Similarly, electrification led to a large drop in summertime ozone levels in the three regions. The reduced long-term exposure to air pollution could save 17,456 lives by 2030.

The team also calculated and compared the monetary benefits of air quality-related health benefits versus the social benefits of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. They found that air quality and health benefits were at least four times greater.

“Somehow efforts to control air pollution and develop the EV industry in China have not aligned at the policy level,” Zhang says. “We want to raise awareness of this gap.” EV sales have drastically slowed down this summer after the government scaled back subsidies EVs; subsidies will be completely eliminated by 2020. But, Zhang and his colleagues write, local policymakers should take note of the health benefits of EVs and consider continuing supporting EVs on a regional scale. “Municipal governments of megacities are advised to promote more progressive incentives.”

_____

Switch from the internal combustion engine to electric vehicles for health benefits, another 2019 study:

Writing in the International Journal of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Mitchell House and David Wright of the University of Ottawa, Canada, suggest that the migration from polluting vehicles that burn fossil fuels to electric vehicles, ideally using electricity generated sustainably could significantly reduce the incidence of cardiopulmonary illness due to air pollution. This would lead not only to less employee absence from work through illness but also lead to broad improvements in quality and length of life.

The team’s paper compares the financial costs of building electric vehicle charging infrastructure using empirical data with health costs to see if there is a net benefit. They have found that in the majority of plausible scenarios of balanced growth, when the number of vehicles rises and so does the number of charging stations, there is a positive net benefit to society.

“Since health benefits accrue to governments, businesses, and individuals, these results justify the use of government incentives for charging station deployment and this paper quantifies the impact of different levels of incentive,” the team concludes.

_____

Emissions from wear of brakes and tires likely to be higher in supposedly clean electric vehicles:

Pollution from the wear of brakes and tires could eclipse all other sources of transport-related particle pollution by 2020, a foremost expert in environmental health has warned. Professor Roy Harrison of the University of Birmingham said particulate matter (PM) emissions from electric and supposedly clean vehicles is likely to end up being a greater contributor to this type of pollution than fumes from diesel exhausts.

PM is a term used to describe particles of varying minuscule sizes, some of which can penetrate lungs or enter the bloodstream when inhaled. Some contain metals which could potentially enter the brain and may play a role in the development of neurological disorders. Exhaust emissions such as nitrogen oxides have so far been the main focus of media attention, with electric vehicles seen as offering a ready-made fix. But Harrison said: “It has been argued that electric vehicles are traditionally heavier than fossil-fuelled vehicles, and therefore that they have to be braked that much harder. “If that is the case, these emissions would be as large as those from conventional, non-electric vehicles. The latest generation of diesels, with particle filters on the exhaust, emit virtually nothing from the exhaust. So, if an electric vehicle is emitting as much in the way of wear emissions as a diesel vehicle, switching to electric is not going to make a lot of difference.”

Wear and tear is particularly acute in the case of lorries. However, it is a problem for all vehicles, be they petrol, diesel or electric, and regardless of whether they are private cars or public transport buses or trains.

Several researchers have questioned Roy Harrison’s comments, based on the fact that they do not appear to take into account the use by electric vehicles of regenerative braking.

Professor Harrison responds:

“I am pleased to set the record straight on this issue. I was basing my comments on a paper by VRJH Timmers and PAJ Achten, published recently in the journal Atmospheric Environment, ‘Non-exhaust PM emissions from electric vehicles’. Timmers and Achten report the weight of a number of electric vehicles in comparison with their internal combustion engine equivalent. In all cases, the weight of the electric vehicle was greater, the range being from 14.6 per cent to 28.7 per cent heavier. Non-exhaust emissions from road vehicles arise from brake wear, tyre and road surface wear, and resuspension of road surface dusts. All are in general terms enhanced by increased vehicle weight. Timmers and Achten acknowledge the benefits of regenerative brakes on electric vehicles and made a conservative estimate of zero brake-wear emissions for electric vehicles. Hence, their claim that electric vehicle particulate matter emissions are comparable to those of conventional vehicles was based upon the greater tyre and road surface wear, and resuspension associated with a greater vehicle weight.  Some electric vehicles are lighter than their internal combustion engine counterparts; consequently the issue is likely to be considerably more complex than suggested by this research.”

_____

_____

Job creation by EV:

Electromobility could create over 200,000 net additional jobs by 2030 in Europe – 2018 study:

Shifting to zero-emission vehicles in Europe will create jobs and drive economic growth, a major new study released today by Cambridge Econometrics for the European Climate Foundation reveals. The analysis, endorsed by Transport & Environment (T&E) and a host of corporations, including from the motor industry, found that moving away from vehicles powered by oil to ones driven by renewable energy will create 206,000 net additional jobs by 2030.

The study estimates that there will be a corresponding increase in gross domestic product (GDP) of 0.2% a year, with European oil imports slashed by €49 billion in 2030. By then purchase costs of plug-in vehicles will be similar to oil-powered cars but total costs of ownership will be much lower, indicating the shift is good for drivers as well as the economy and the environment.

According to one of the scenarios in the study, Europe would be on track to reduce CO2 emissions from cars by 88% by 2050. The associated technology improvements would cut toxic nitrogen oxides (NOx) from cars from around 1.3 million tons per year to around 70,000 tons per year, helping reduce air pollution which causes 467,000 premature deaths in Europe every year.

_______

_______

Section-15

EV safety:

Great effort is taken to keep the mass of an electric vehicle as low as possible, in order to improve the EV’s range and endurance. Despite these efforts, the high density and weight of the electric batteries usually results in an EV being heavier than a similar equivalent gasoline vehicle leading to less interior space, worse handling characteristics, and longer braking distances. However, in a collision, the occupants of a heavy vehicle will, on average, suffer fewer and less serious injuries than the occupants of a lighter vehicle; therefore, the additional weight brings safety benefits despite having a negative effect on the car’s performance. An accident in a 2,000 lb (900 kg) vehicle will on average cause about 50% more injuries to its occupants than a 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) vehicle.

Electric cars not as likely to catch fire as gas-powered vehicles:

There have been fires involving electric cars, but not nearly as many as those involving gas-powered vehicles based on miles driven, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The National Fire Protection Association reports that a driver is 5 times more likely to experience a fire in a conventional gas-powered car than in an electric car.

Hazard to pedestrians:  

Electric cars produced much less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by a internal combustion engine. However, the reduced noise level from electric engines may not be beneficial for all road users, as blind people or the visually-impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence electric cars and hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard. Tests have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users and not only the visually-impaired. At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make more audible noise. The US Congress and the European Commission are exploring legislation to establish a minimum level of sound for electric and hybrid electric vehicles when operating in electric mode, so that blind people and other pedestrians and cyclists can hear them coming and detect from which direction they are approaching.

The Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), which was commissioned by the Department for Transport to find out if electric cars were too quiet, discovered that, ‘relative to the number of registered vehicles’, electric and hybrid cars and vans ‘were 30 per cent less likely to be involved in an accident’ than their petrol or diesel alternatives. However, they are more likely to be involved in accidents involving pedestrians. Research conducted by charity Guide Dogs, found that ‘quiet hybrid and electric vehicles are 40 per cent more likely to collide with pedestrians than cars with a regular combustion engine’.

Thankfully, as the TRL report points out, ‘manufacturers are taking steps to independently (i.e., without legislation) increase the audibility of such vehicles which may reduce the potential risk if noise is a significant contributory factor’. Many electric car manufacturers have installed a noise-making device that operates when the car is running at slow speeds. This lets pedestrians know that a car is around. More sophisticated technology, such as sensors targeting sound waves to specific pedestrians, is being developed. 

Regenerative braking as a safety feature!

There are no safety features found on plug-in models that aren’t found on conventional cars.  However, one feature found only in battery-powered cars could have an impact on safety. Regenerative braking isn’t specifically a safety feature – it’s designed to recapture otherwise lost energy to top up the battery – but as soon as you take your foot off the accelerator, a plug-in car will start braking to a greater or lesser degree depending on what setting the driver has set in. In the event of someone braking to try and avoid an accident, a plug-in car with regenerative braking could start decelerating a fraction earlier.

Working safely with high-voltage cars:

There is a safety issue to the high-voltage batteries, but this only really becomes a potential problem when work is being carried out on the car. EV mechanics are trained to safely work on hybrid and electric cars.

_______

_______

Section-16

EV sales, incentives and market:

_

The electric vehicle (EV) as a green energy solution has already become a popular and accepted replacement for the internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle. Their use is increasing daily because of rising awareness of carbon emissions, government incentives like providing privileges EV drivers, and, of course, increasing oil prices and decreasing reserves. After entering commercial markets in the first half of the decade, electric car sales have soared. Only about 17 000 electric cars were on the world’s roads in 2010. By 2019, that number had swelled to 7.2 million, 47% of which were in The People’s Republic of China (“China”). Nine countries had more than 100,000 electric cars on the road. At least 20 countries reached market shares above 1%. Electric cars are accounted for 2.6% of global car sales and about 1% of global car stock in 2019. According to 2019 Bloomberg analysis, annual passenger EV sales surpassed 2 million in 2018, are expected to increase to 10 million by 2025, 28 million by 2030, and will comprise over half of all passenger vehicle sales by 2040, or 56 million vehicles annually.

_

Figure above shows annual sales of plug-in passenger cars in the world’s top markets between 2011 and 2019.

Cumulative global light-duty plug-in vehicle sales passed the 3 million milestone in November 2017. About 1.2 million plug-ins cars and vans were sold worldwide in 2017, with China accounting for about half of global sales. The plug-in car segment achieved a 1.3% market share.  Plug-in passenger car sales totaled just over 2 million in 2018, with a market share of 2.1%. The global stock reached 5.3 million light-duty plug-in vehicles in December 2018.  Despite the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles on the world’s roads by the end of 2018.

By the end of 2019 the stock of light-duty plug-in vehicles totaled 7.55 million units, consisting of 4.79 million all-electric cars, 2.38 million plug-in hybrid cars, and 377,970 electric light commercial vehicles. Plug-in passenger cars still represented less than 1% of the world’s car fleet in use. In addition, there were about half a million electric buses in circulation in 2019, most of them in China. 

All-electric cars have outsold plug-in hybrids for several years, and by the end of 2019, the shift towards battery electric cars continued. The global ratio between all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, increased to 66:34 in 2017, and rose to 69:31 in 2018, and reached 74:26 in 2019.  Out of the 7.2 million plug-in passenger cars in use at the end of 2019, two thirds were all-electric cars (4.8 million).

Electric vehicles are close to the “tipping point” of rapid mass adoption thanks to the plummeting cost of batteries, experts say. Global sales rose 43% in 2020, but even faster growth is anticipated when continuing falls in battery prices bring the price of electric cars dipping below that of equivalent petrol and diesel models, even without subsidies. The latest analyses forecast that to happen sometime between 2023 and 2025. The tipping point has already been passed in Norway, where tax breaks mean electric cars are cheaper. The market share of battery-powered cars soared to 54% in 2020 in the Nordic country, compared with less than 5% in most European nations.

_

According to the Bloomberg NEF (BNEF) 2019 Electric Vehicle Outlook, EVs will account for 55 percent of all new passenger cars worldwide by 2040. In addition, compared to the ICE vehicles, EV motors are more efficient and react quickly with high torque. They are also cost-efficient because of their lower fuel and maintenance costs. Today, there are different commercially successful models of EVs, from economical models to the powerful sports models.

Figure above shows projections of Annual global vehicle sales.

______

______ 

Government incentives and policies:

Several national, provincial, and local governments around the world have introduced policies to support the mass market adoption of plug-in electric vehicles. A variety of policies have been established to provide direct financial support to consumers and manufacturers; non-monetary incentives; subsidies for the deployment of charging infrastructure; procurement of electric vehicle for government fleets; and long term regulations with specific targets.

Financial incentives for consumers aim to make plug-in electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars due to the still higher up-front cost of electric vehicles. Among the financial incentives there are one-time purchase incentives such as tax credits, purchase grants, exemptions from import duties, and other fiscal incentives; exemptions from road, bridge and tunnel tolls, and from congestion pricing fees; and exemption of registration and annual use vehicle fees. Some countries, like France, also introduced a bonus-malus CO2 based tax system that penalize fossil-fuel vehicle sales.

As of 2020, monetary incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles are available, among others, in several European Union member states, China, the United States, the UK, Japan, Norway, some provinces in Canada, South Korea, India, Israel, Colombia, and Costa Rica.

_

Among the non-monetary incentives there are several perks such allowing plug-in vehicles access to bus lanes and high-occupancy vehicle lanes, free parking and free charging. In addition, in some countries or cities that restrict private car ownership (purchase quota system for new vehicles), or have implemented permanent driving restrictions (no-drive days), the schemes often exclude electric vehicles from the restrictions to promote their adoption.

For example, in Beijing, the license plate lottery scheme specifies a fixed number of vehicle purchase permits each year, but to promote the electrification of its fleet, the city government split the number of purchase permits into two lots, one for conventional vehicles, and another dedicated for all-electric vehicle applicants. In the case of cities with driving alternate-days based on the license plate number, such as San José, Costa Rica, since 2012, São Paulo and Bogotá since 2014, and Mexico City since 2015, all-electric vehicles were excluded from the driving restrictions.

_____

_____

Electric Vehicles Market:

Advancements in battery technology with lower cost, improved charging speed, and government support in the form of tax rebates and subsidies to promote eco-friendly vehicles are the key factors driving the adoption of electric vehicles. In addition, the market growth is also driven by the rising investment by automakers in EV development, decreasing prices of batteries. However, stringent rules for the installation of charging stations and high cost of an electric vehicle pose challenges for the growth of the electric vehicle market.

Key Drivers:

-Favorable government policies and subsidies

-Heavy investments from automakers in EVs

-Growing concerns over environmental pollution

-Demand for increased vehicle range per charge

Key Restraints:

-Lack of standardization of charging infrastructure

-High cost of EVs in comparison to ICE vehicles

_

The Electric Vehicles Market is projected to reach 26,951,318 units by 2030 from an estimated 3,269,671 units in 2019, at a CAGR of 21.1% during the forecast period. The base year for the report is 2018, and the forecast period is from 2019 to 2030. The electric vehicle market has witnessed rapid evolution with the ongoing developments in automotive sector. Favorable government policies and support in terms of subsidies and grants, tax rebates and other non-financial benefits in the form of car pool lane access, and new car registration (specifically in China where ICE engine new car registration are banned in some urban areas), the increasing vehicle range, better availability of charging infrastructure and proactive participation by automotive OEMs would drive the global electric vehicle sales.

The electric vehicle market is dominated by globally established players such as Tesla (US), BYD (China), BMW (Germany), Volkswagen (Germany), and Nissan (Japan). These companies developed new products, adopted expansion strategies, and undertook collaborations, partnerships, and mergers & acquisitions to gain traction in this high-growth electric vehicle market.

_

The global electric vehicle market was valued at $162.34 billion in 2019, and is projected to reach $802.81 billion by 2027, registering a CAGR of 22.6%. Asia-Pacific was the highest revenue contributor, accounting for $84.84 billion in 2019, and is estimated to reach $357.81 billion by 2027, with a CAGR of 20.1%. North America is estimated to reach $194.20 billion by 2027, at a significant CAGR of 27.5%. Asia-Pacific and Europe collectively accounted for around 74.8% share in 2019, with the former constituting around 52.3% share. North America and Europe are expected to witness considerable CAGRs of 27.5% and 25.3%, respectively, during the forecast period. The cumulative share of these two segments was 40.1% in 2019, and is anticipated to reach 51.0% by 2027.

_______

_______

Coronavirus pumps the brakes on the electric vehicle revolution in 2020:

One of the starkest ways the coronavirus pandemic has upended daily life is its impact on transit: Simply put, we’ve stopped moving around. Flights and cruises are being canceled en masse, subways are losing riders, and highways have become eerily empty as commuter traffic peters out.

Far from just impacting transportation today, the pandemic and ensuing economic fallout could have big implications for the transit systems of tomorrow. Early signs suggest that the electric vehicle market, like the rest of the auto market, is taking a serious hit from COVID-19. For now, it appears to be a short-term stall out. But with the economy headed for recession and the price of oil reaching historic lows, bigger challenges could lie ahead for the EV industry unless governments take proactive measures to ensure a clean transit future.

Indeed, if early data from China, the world’s largest EV market, is any indicator, clean cars are in for a rough ride. In January, passenger EV sales were down 52 percent compared with 2019 as China scrambled to shut down its manufacturing sector and quarantine tens of millions of citizens. In February, the fallout was even worse: passenger EV sales fell 77 percent while production fell more than 80 percent, compared with 2019, according to data from the China Association of Automobile Manufacturers.

It was an exaggerated version of what was happening to the auto industry at large. For January and February, sales of all vehicles were down 44 percent across China, according to a BloombergNEF research.

With China’s COVID-19 outbreak now largely contained, the industrial powerhouse is working hard to restart its economy, and these dismal numbers should start looking better soon. But the European EV market, which saw incredibly strong growth at the start of the year, is now bracing for famine. Ditto for the United States. Basically the whole auto market is in trouble, and EVs are not immune to that.

As with many other industries, the EV market’s best hope may be that government measures to limit the immediate spread of the pandemic and ensuing economic devastation are successful. Beyond that, placing clean energy front-and-center in recovery plans will be key to ensuring that the dip in carbon emissions the world is now seeing at great expense to human livelihoods is not for nothing, but rather a starting point toward building a better future for everyone.

______

______

Section-17

EV and greenhouse gases (GHG):

_

Direct and Well-to-Wheel Emissions:

Vehicle emissions can be divided into two general categories: air pollutants, which contribute to smog, haze, and health problems; and greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide and methane. Both categories of emissions can be evaluated on a direct basis and a well-to-wheel basis.

Conventional vehicles with an internal combustion engine (ICE) produce direct emissions through the tailpipe, as well as through evaporation from the vehicle’s fuel system and during the fueling process. Conversely, EVs produce zero direct emissions. PHEVs produce zero tailpipe emissions when they are in all-electric mode, but they can produce evaporative emissions. When using the ICE, PHEVs also produce tailpipe emissions. However, their direct emissions are typically lower than those of comparable conventional vehicles.

Well-to-wheel emissions include all emissions related to fuel production, processing, distribution, and use. In the case of gasoline, emissions are produced while extracting petroleum from the earth, refining it, distributing the fuel to stations, and burning it in vehicles. In the case of electricity, most electric power plants produce emissions, and there are additional emissions associated with the extraction, processing, and distribution of the primary energy sources they use for electricity production.

Electric cars produce no pollution at the tailpipe, but their use increases demand for electricity generation. Generating electricity and producing liquid fuels for vehicles are different categories of the energy economy, with different inefficiencies and environmental harms, but both emit carbon dioxide into the environment that must be accounted for in a “well to wheel” comparison. An electric car’s WTW emissions are much lower in a country like Canada, which electricity supply is dominated by hydro and nuclear, than in countries like China and the US that rely heavily on coal. An EV recharged from the existing US grid electricity emits about 115 grams of CO2 per kilometer driven (6.5 oz(CO2)/mi), whereas a conventional US-market gasoline powered car emits 250 g(CO2)/km (14 oz(CO2)/mi) (most from its tailpipe, some from the production and distribution of gasoline).

______

Transportation is the largest single source of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, with light-duty passenger vehicles accounting for approximately two-thirds of those emissions. In 2017, U.S. transportation sector GHG emissions surpassed all other individual sectors, accounting for 29% of the country’s total GHG emissions. Within the transportation sector, ~60% of GHG emissions came from light‐duty vehicles (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2019a).  In addition to being a leading contributor to GHG emissions, the U.S. transportation sector is responsible for air pollutant emissions that cause a substantial public health burden. Light‐duty vehicle emissions include primary and secondary pollutants that comprise or contribute to atmospheric fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ground‐level ozone (O3)—both of which are criteria air pollutants with well‐documented human health impacts (U.S. EPA, 2018a).

_

Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants. In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.

_

Electric cars (or electric vehicles, EVs) have several environmental benefits compared to conventional internal combustion engine cars. They produce little or no tailpipe emissions, reduce dependence on petroleum and also have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and health effects from air pollution, depending on the source of electricity used to charge them and other factors.  Electric motors are significantly more efficient than internal combustion engines and thus, even accounting for typical power plan efficiencies and distribution losses, less energy is required to operate an EV. Producing batteries for electric cars requires additional resources and energy, so they may have a larger environmental footprint from the production phase. EVs also generate different impacts in their operation and maintenance. EVs are typically heavier and could produce more tire, brake, and road dust, but their regenerative braking could reduce brake particulate pollution. EVs are mechanically simpler, which reduces the use and disposal of engine oil. By using efficient electric motors and plugging into a grid using more renewables, PEVs can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. According to an analysis by the Union of Concerned Scientists, the average PEV produces greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline-powered car that get more than 70 miles per gallon. (The average new car in the United States achieves 25.3 miles per gallon.).

_

The environmental impact of your electric vehicle varies depends on how it is powered. Typically, reduced fuel consumption results in reduced greenhouse emissions. New vehicles sold in Australia are required to display a fuel consumption label on the windscreen. This indicates the vehicle’s fuel consumption and emissions of carbon dioxide. These numbers are standardised, so you can reliably compare the performance of different models. The Electric Vehicle Council estimates the following emissions for petrol and electric vehicles, based on a mid-sized SUV:

Vehicle type	Petrol usage	Average annual tailpipe emissions (tonnes CO2)
Petrol	7.5L/100km	2.62
Hybrid	4.8L/100km	1.55
Plug-in hybrid	1.9L/100km	0.6
Electric vehicle	NA	0

______ 

Electric vehicles produce no greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in operation, but the electricity used to power them may do so in its generation. The two factors driving the emissions of battery electric vehicles are the carbon intensity of the electricity used to recharge the Electric Vehicle (commonly expressed in grams of CO2 per kWh) and the consumption of the specific vehicle (in kilometers/kWh).

The carbon intensity of electricity varies depending on the source of electricity where it is consumed. A country with a high share of renewable energy in its electricity mix will have a low C.I. In the European Union, in 2013, the carbon intensity had a strong geographic variability but in most of the member states, electric vehicles were “greener” than conventional ones. On average, electric cars saved 50%–60% of CO2 emissions compared to diesel and gasoline fuelled engines.

Moreover, the de-carbonisation process is constantly reducing the GHG emissions due to the use of electric vehicles. In the European Union, on average, between 2009 and 2013 there was a reduction in the electricity carbon intensity of 17%. In a life-cycle assessment perspective, considering the GHG necessary to build the battery and its end-of-life, the GHG savings are 10-13% lower.

_____

Knowing where these cars are helps calculate their impact on climate emissions. The IEA reports the carbon intensity of national grids in grams (g) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per kilowatt hour (kWh), which can then be used to gauge emission rates for that country’s EVs. The IEA has also calculated that when EVs receive electricity with emission levels exceeding 559 gCO2/kWh, they, unfortunately, are net contributors to climate change when compared with conventional vehicles. The carbon intensity for the countries with the most EVs is a very mixed picture.

From figure above we see that the use of EVs in the United States should, on average, have a slightly positive effect on reducing carbon emissions. And the 2013 level is an improvement from the 2009 level of 529 gCO2/kWh. With the significant post-2013 reduction in coal use, we can expect that the 2015 level will be even lower. On the other hand, Japan is moving in the opposite direction. With the closure of approximately 50 nuclear power plants in the wake of the Fukushima accident, EV use now marginally contributes to climate change. 

The situation in China is worse. With coal comprising approximately 70% of China’s electricity generation, the carbon intensity of the grid is high. China has made bold climate pledges, but evidence on the ground today is mixed. It has the most ambitious renewable energy program of any country, but, at the same time, continues to build new coal-fired plants. The fact that China is likely to have more EVs than any other country by the end of 2016 provides little cause for cheer among those concerned about climate change.

Norway demonstrates the opposite extreme. The carbon intensity of its grid is extraordinarily low due to the overwhelming presence of hydroelectric power. Because of the government’s generous incentives for purchase, EV ownership per capita is higher than anywhere in the world. Approximately 30% of all new vehicles sold in Norway during the last quarter of 2016 were EVs.

At the international level, therefore, the evidence is mixed. In some cases, EVs reduce CO2 emissions, and in other cases, they actually result in more carbon emissions than would conventional vehicles. But if countries diligently work to decarbonize their electricity grids, the outlook will be much more promising than today’s evidence suggests.

In summary, EVs in 2013 can be climate positive or climate negative depending on where they are located and when they are recharged. As demonstrated in above analysis, EV ownership is taking place in some regions where there is a concurrent growth in the use of renewable energy. That is the good news. As EVs grow as a percentage of sales, however, they will inevitably spread to regions with grids that are more carbon intensive. This is the story right now in China, where the electric grid is still very carbon intensive.

In a world that needs to quickly reduce its greenhouse gas emissions to avoid the worst consequences of climate change, the transport sector remains, perhaps, the most significant technical challenge. The promise of EVs points to one important avenue of progress, but rising EV sales must be synchronized with renewable energy growth.

_____

Electric vehicles support the transition to renewable energy. Even when charged with electricity from the grid, electric vehicles produce only a third of the greenhouse gas emissions that a gas vehicle would, due in large part to their high energy-efficiency. Since electric vehicles are typically charged overnight, owners can work with their utility company to take advantage of time of use rates that charge consumers less for electricity when demand for energy is lower. Electric vehicles have the potential to help balance the demand for energy with the time of day when the cleanest energy is being produced. Plus, many EV drivers sign up for community solar or other renewable energy programs, and others even install solar at their homes.

Figure below shows annual well-to-wheel car emissions by fuel type (12,000 miles compact/midsize car):

_____

Where does your power come from? 

Some EV batteries today pack 10 times as much power as an average household uses in a day. And often, those electric vehicles are being charged at home. Most of the electricity generated by North American grids has some greenhouse gas emissions connected to it. So even if a car isn’t belching carbon, it doesn’t mean it’s perfectly clean.

For instance, coal is about the dirtiest way to generate electricity to recharge a car battery. Powering an EV with electricity generated from coal is marginally better than burning gasoline in an internal-combustion engine, according to numbers compiled by Jennifer Dunn at Northwestern University’s Center for Engineering Sustainability and Resilience.

Most North American grids are composed of a mix of generating sources, from coal to hydro to nuclear, though Canada has pledged to eliminate coal-burning plants by 2030. When that mix is taken into account, charging a car generally creates less than half the carbon emissions compared to gasoline, according to Dunn. 

It’s only when electricity comes from clean, renewable sources like wind and solar that you see the most pronounced drop in EV emissions generated to power the car.

_____

EVs and variable RE (VRE): Combining for low environmental impact:  

EVs offer a number of important environmental benefits. In urban areas, where most transport activity takes place, the impact of transport on air pollution is significant. EVs do not emit any air pollutants. Cities that have severe air-quality problems can embrace EVs in their stock (for both private vehicles and public transport) and substitute ICEs. Recently, a number of European countries and cities have announced intended bans on ICEs or some types of ICEs (such as diesels) (Pedestrian Observations, 2016). In order to provide the same transport service, cities are planning to increasingly rely on EVs or shift to other types of electric transport such as trams, buses, etc. (Automotive News Europe, 2016).

While EVs do not emit any emissions during driving, the electricity they consume can be produced from fossil fuels that emit air pollutants or CO2. Therefore, emissions must be considered on a well-to-wheel basis in comparing their CO2 emissions to conventional vehicles. Well-to-wheel emissions depend on the efficiency of the EV and the fuel mix of electricity generation, which differs greatly across countries.

Figure below compares the CO2 intensity of BEVs for “modest efficiency” and “high efficiency” cases, across different CO2 intensity levels, with the CO2 emissions of various internal combustion engine vehicles. As shown, a BEV of even modest efficiency can provide reductions compared to an efficient Light Duty Vehicle as long as the electricity is produced with CO2 emissions below 600 g/kWh. However, to compare to today’s best vehicles (such as small European or Japanese hybrids that can achieve below 100 g CO2/km), the BEV must be driven on electricity with a CO2 emission factor below 400 g/kWh for moderate efficiency.

A very efficient (and likely quite small) BEV can beat today’s best ICEs as long as the electricity intensity is under 600 g CO2/kWh. By 2030, ICE vehicle emissions will have to fall below 80 g CO2/km, at least in Europe, where the European Commission is considering a 2025 standard of 68-78 g CO2/km (ICCT, 2016). Electricity must therefore be deeply decarbonised for average-efficiency BEVs to have a significant advantage. Of course, this decarbonisation is also necessary for BEVs to eventually provide a near-zero CO2 performance, which is a long term goal.

Figure below shows relation between power plant CO emissions and vehicle efficiency:

Notably, figure above uses tested efficiencies, which can be up to 50% better than actual in-use performance. This is true for EVs as well as for ICE vehicles, and more research is needed to better understand how a wide range of vehicles performs in the real world. Finally, plug-in hybrid vehicles are not easy to represent in a figure like this one since they use both electricity and liquid fuel. A well designed PHEV should be able to hit close to both the hybrid vehicle CO2 and efficient-BEV CO2 levels shown in the figure. 

______

Different studies find different results:

A recent working paper from a group of German researchers at the thinktank Institute for Economic Research (ifo) found that “electric vehicles will barely help cut CO2 emissions in Germany over the coming years”. It suggests that, in Germany, “the CO2 emissions of battery-electric vehicles are, in the best case, slightly higher than those of a diesel engine”.

This study was picked up in the international media, with the Wall Street Journal running an editorial titled, “Germany’s dirty green cars”. It also engendered pushback from electric vehicle advocates, with articles in Jalopnik and Autoblog, as well as individual researchers rebutting the claim.

Other recent studies of electric cars in Germany have reached the opposite conclusion. One study found that emissions from EVs have emissions up to 43 per cent lower than diesel vehicles. Another detailed that “in all cases examined, electric cars have lower lifetime climate impacts than those with internal combustion engines”.

These differences arise from the assumptions used by researchers. As Prof Jeremy Michalek, director of the Vehicle Electrification Group at Carnegie Mellon University says, “which technology comes out on top depends on a lot of things”. These include which specific vehicles are being compared, what electricity grid mix is assumed, if marginal or average electricity emissions are used, what driving patterns are assumed, and even the weather.

_____

_____

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Electric Vehicles vis-à-vis emissions:  

Electric vehicles (EVs) provide many benefits over a traditional internal combustion vehicle, such as improved powertrain efficiency, lower maintenance requirements, and zero tailpipe emissions. There is international consensus that improvements in EV sustainability can only be analyzed on the basis of a life cycle assessment (LCA), which includes an examination of the production, operation, and treatment of the vehicles. For example, about 90% of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of a vehicle running on renewable electricity from hydropower are associated with the production and end-of-life treatment of the vehicle, while only 10% are the result of vehicle operation. Additionally, all environmental impacts must also include the entire value chain, as shown in figure below:

Figure above shows assessment of LCA aspects over the full value chain. The LCA includes three phases: production, operation, and end of life. The blue boxes are the elements of the operation phase of the electric vehicle. The red boxes are the production (at left) and dismantling phases (at right) of the vehicle, and the dotted arrow indicates possible recycling.

_______ 

A life cycle analysis of emissions considers three phases: the manufacturing phase (also known as cradle-to-gate), the use phase (well-to-wheel) and the recycling phase (grave-to-cradle).

The manufacturing phase:

In this phase, the main processes are ore mining, material transformation, manufacturing of vehicle components and vehicle assembly. A recent study of car emissions in China estimates emissions for cars with internal combustion engines in this phase to be about 10.5 tonnes of carbon dioxide (tCO₂) per car, compared to emissions for an electric car of about 13 tonnes (including the electric car battery manufacturing).

Emissions from the manufacturing of a lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt-oxide battery alone were estimated to be 3.2 tonnes. If the vehicle life is assumed to be 150,000 kilometres, emissions from the manufacturing phase of an electric car are higher than for fossil-fuelled cars. But for complete life cycle emissions, the study shows that EV emissions are 18% lower than fossil-fuelled cars.

The use phase:

In the use phase, emissions from an electric car are solely due to its upstream emissions, which depend on how much of the electricity comes from fossil or renewable sources. The emissions from a fossil-fuelled car are due to both upstream emissions and tailpipe emissions.

Upstream emissions of BEVs essentially depend on the share of zero or low-carbon sources in the country’s electricity generation mix. To understand how the emissions of electric cars vary with a country’s renewable electricity share, consider Australia and New Zealand.

In 2018, Australia’s share of renewables in electricity generation was about 21% (similar to Greece’s at 22%). In contrast, the share of renewables in New Zealand’s electricity generation mix was about 84% (less than France’s at 90%). Using these data and estimates from a 2018 assessment, electric car upstream emissions (for a battery electric vehicle) in Australia can be estimated to be about 170g of CO₂ per km while upstream emissions in New Zealand are estimated at about 25g of CO₂ per km on average. This shows that using an electric car in New Zealand is likely to be about seven times better in terms of upstream carbon emissions than in Australia.

The above studies show that emissions during the use phase from a fossil-fuelled compact sedan car were about 251g of CO₂ per km. Therefore, the use phase emissions from such a car were about 81g of CO₂ per km higher than those from a grid-recharged EV in Australia, and much worse than the emissions from an electric car in New Zealand.

The recycling phase:

The key processes in the recycling phase are vehicle dismantling, vehicle recycling, battery recycling and material recovery. The estimated emissions in this phase, based on a study in China, are about 1.8 tonnes for a fossil-fuelled car and 2.4 tonnes for an electric car (including battery recycling). This difference is mostly due to the emissions from battery recycling which is 0.7 tonnes.

This illustrates that electric cars are responsible for more emissions than their petrol counterparts in the recycling phase. But it’s important to note the recycled vehicle components can be used in the manufacturing of future vehicles, and batteries recycled through direct cathode recycling can be used in subsequent batteries. This could have significant emissions reduction benefits in the future.

So on the basis of recent studies, fossil-fuelled cars generally emit more than electric cars in all phases of a life cycle. The total life cycle emissions from a fossil-fuelled car and an electric car in Australia were 333g of CO₂ per km and 273g of CO₂ per km, respectively. That is, using average grid electricity, EVs come out about 18% better in terms of their carbon footprint.

Likewise, electric cars in New Zealand work out a lot better than fossil-fuelled cars in terms of emissions, with life-cycle emissions at about 333 g of CO₂ per km for fossil-fuelled cars and 128g of CO₂ per km for electric cars. In New Zealand, EVs perform about 62% better than fossil cars in carbon footprint terms.

_______

T&E’s analysis of electric car lifecycle emissions: year 2020:

As carmakers rush to reduce CO₂ emissions from their vehicles to comply with EU car regulations in 2020 and 2021, the offer and sales of electric vehicles (EVs) are rapidly growing. In the 2020s, electric car sales will reach the mass market with the total number of EVs on the road expected to increase by more than 30 times across Europe by 2030. This means that 97% of the electric cars that will be on the road in 2030 have not yet been sold (from 1.3 million EVs in the end of 2019 to 44 million in 2030). 

The arrival of the electric car has brought with it an array of lifecycle analyses estimating CO₂ emissions of electric cars including battery and charging, and comparing those to conventional cars. While many researchers have to rely on outdated data or evidence, some LCAs (or their interpretation) are deliberately misleading. A lot of these rely on outdated data to compare fast developing EVs with mature petrol or diesel technology that has little room for improvement. To bring clarity and transparency to this debate, T&E has produced a comprehensive and forward-looking comparison of electric, diesel and petrol engines in different car sizes for 2020 and 2030. It is based on the latest evidence that shows that an average EU electric car is already close to three times better than an equivalent conventional car today. Crucially, electric cars will get considerably cleaner in the next few years as the EU economy decarbonises, with average EVs more than four times cleaner than conventional equivalents in 2030.  

Electric cars outperform diesels and petrols in all scenarios, even on carbon intensive grids such as Poland, where they are about 30% better than conventional cars. In the best case scenario (an EV running on clean electricity with a battery produced with clean electricity), EVs are already about five times cleaner than conventional equivalents. Crucially, the evidence shows that electric cars – powered with the average electricity – repay their “carbon debt” from the production of the battery after slightly more than a year and save more than 30 tons of CO₂ over their lifetime compared to a conventional equivalent. Electric vehicles that do high mileages (e.g., shared vehicles, taxis or Uber-like services) save up to 85 tons over their lifetime (compared to diesel).

T&E’s assessment is more granular, accurate and forward looking than any other existing LCA as it includes up-to-date evidence on key aspects on the lifecycle performance of EVs, i.e.: 

• Electricity for EV charging: Scenarios for electricity grid decarbonisation are in line with the current and expected uptake of renewables to 2040s.
• Battery footprint: More recent and industrial scale battery manufacturing resulting in values two to three times lower than previous commonly used estimates.
• Real-world emissions of conventional cars (instead of unrepresentative laboratory test values), as well as updated indirect fuel emissions from the production, refining and transportation.
• Realistic lifetime mileages for electric cars adjusted to the performance of the latest generation of electric cars and batteries.
• Importantly, T&E’s tool allows to compare emissions of future EVs bought in 2030 and shows they would reduce CO₂ emissions further by about a third compared to an EV bought in 2020.

The LCA emissions of electric cars are bound to reduce even further compared to what is presented in this the case as new evidence builds up on: the longer lifetime of batteries thanks to innovation, the ramping up of battery reuse, repurpose and recycling, and the accelerating uptake of renewables. Battery recycling couldn’t be fully incorporated due to the lack of any reliable data; however the scarce data available shows its impact to be between negligible to beneficial, so would leave the lifecycle EV results unchanged in the worst case. But one cannot use LCA methodology in regulations covering one specific sector, e.g., vehicle CO2 standards. Lifecycle analyses point to where emissions occur but include actors as varied as individuals charging their cars, power companies, Chinese battery makers, EU carmakers and eastern European governments. There’s no way an LCA regulation could properly address all those actors all at once. Rather we need tailored policies to each of the areas identified as problematic, e.g., increasing renewables power across Europe and mandating batteries longer life and recycling.

Plug-in vehicles emit less greenhouse gases than petrol and diesel models over a car’s lifetime – that includes the mining of metals or lithium for batteries, manufacturing, driving 150,000 kilometers and finally scrapping. The potential of electric cars to reduce CO₂ emissions is crystal clear and the EU should accelerate the transition to zero emission mobility and phase out diesel and petrol cars by 2035 at the latest, in line with its Green Deal climate ambition.

Transport & Environment’s (T&E) vision is a zero-emission mobility system that is affordable and has minimal impacts on our health, climate and environment.

_______

_______

Union of Concerned Scientists studies on emissions of EV:

2012 study:

The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) published a study in 2012 that assessed average greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. resulting from charging plug-in car batteries from the perspective of the full life-cycle (well-to-wheel analysis) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region. The study used the Nissan Leaf all-electric car to establish the analysis baseline, and electric-utility emissions are based on EPA’s 2009 estimates. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, hydroelectric or renewable sources, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal, hybrid electric cars produce less CO2-e equivalent emissions than plug-in electric cars, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway driving fuel economy of 30 mpg‑US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg‑imp). In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg‑imp).

The study concluded that for 45% of the U.S. population, a plug-in electric car will generate lower CO2 equivalent emissions than a gasoline-powered car capable of combined 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg‑imp), such as the Toyota Prius and the Prius c. The study also found that for 37% of the population, the electric car emissions will fall in the range of a gasoline-powered car rated at a combined fuel economy of 41 to 50 mpg‑US (5.7 to 4.7 L/100 km; 49 to 60 mpg‑imp), such as the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Lexus CT200h. Only 18% of the population lives in areas where the power-supply is more dependent on burning carbon, and the greenhouse gas emissions will be equivalent to a car rated at a combined fuel economy of 31 to 40 mpg‑US (7.6 to 5.9 L/100 km; 37 to 48 mpg‑imp), such as the Chevrolet Cruze and Ford Focus. The study found that there are no regions in the U.S. where plug-in electric cars will have higher greenhouse gas emissions than the average new compact gasoline engine automobile, and the area with the dirtiest power supply produces CO2 emissions equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 33 mpg‑US (7.1 L/100 km). 

_

2014 update:

In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report. The 2014 analysis found that 60% of Americans, up from 45% in 2009, live in regions where an all-electric car produce fewer CO2 equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid. The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement. First, electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two analysis. The 2014 study used electric-utility emissions based on EPA’s 2010 estimates, but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5% from 2010 to 2014, actual efficiency in 2014 is expected to be better than estimated in the UCS study. Second, electric vehicles have become more efficient, as the average model year 2013 all-electric vehicle used 0.325 kWh/mile, representing a 5% improvement over 2011 models. The Nissan Leaf, used as the reference model for the baseline of the 2012 study, was upgraded in model year 2013 to achieve a rating of 0.30 kWh/mile, a 12% improvement over the 2011 model year model rating of 0.34 kWh/mile. Also, some new models are cleaner than the average, such as the BMW i3, which is rated at 0.27 kWh by the EPA. An i3 charged with power from the Midwest grid would be as clean as a gasoline-powered car with about 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km), up from 39 mpg‑US (6.0 L/100 km) for the average electric car in the 2012 study. In states with a cleaner mix generation, the gains were larger. The average all-electric car in California went up to 95 mpg‑US (2.5 L/100 km) equivalent from 78 mpg‑US (3.0 L/100 km) in the 2012 study. States with dirtier generation that rely heavily on coal still lag, such as Colorado, where the average BEV only achieves the same emissions as a 34 mpg‑US (6.9 L/100 km; 41 mpg‑imp) gasoline-powered car. The author of the 2014 analysis noted that the benefits are not distributed evenly across the U.S. because electric car adoption is concentrated in the states with cleaner power.

_

2015 study:

In November 2015 the Union of Concerned Scientists published a new report comparing two battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with similar gasoline vehicles by examining their global warming emissions over their full life-cycle, cradle-to-grave analysis. The two BEVs modeled, midsize and full-size, are based on the two most popular BEV models sold in the United States in 2015, the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. The study found that all-electric cars representative of those sold today, on average produce less than half the global warming emissions of comparable gasoline-powered vehicles, despite taken into account the higher emissions associated with BEV manufacturing. Considering the regions where the two most popular electric cars are being sold, excess manufacturing emissions are offset within 6 to 16 months of average driving. The study also concluded that driving an average EV results in lower global warming emissions than driving a gasoline car that gets 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km) in regions covering two-thirds of the U.S. population, up from 45% in 2009. Based on where EVs are being sold in the United States in 2015, the average EV produces global warming emissions equal to a gasoline vehicle with a 68 mpg‑US (3.5 L/100 km) fuel economy rating. The authors identified two main reason for the fact that EV-related emissions have become even lower in many parts of the country since the first study was conducted in 2012. Electricity generation has been getting cleaner, as coal-fired generation has declined while lower-carbon alternatives have increased. In addition, electric cars are becoming more efficient.

_

2020 study:

Based on where EVs have been sold, driving the average EV produces global warming pollution equal to a gasoline vehicle that gets 88 miles per gallon (mpg) fuel economy. That’s significantly better than the most efficient gasoline car (58 mpg) and far cleaner than the average new gasoline car (31 mpg) or truck (21 mpg) sold in the US.

To compare the climate-changing emissions from electric vehicles to gasoline-powered cars, authors analyzed all the emissions from fueling and driving both types of vehicles. For a gasoline car, that means looking at emissions from extracting crude oil from the ground, moving the oil to a refinery, making gasoline and transporting gasoline to filling stations, in addition to combustion emissions from the tailpipe.

For electric vehicles, the calculation includes both power plant emissions and emissions from the production of coal, natural gas and other fuels power plants use.

When looking at all these factors, driving the average EV is responsible for fewer global warming emissions than the average new gasoline car everywhere in the US. In some parts of the country, driving the average new gasoline car will produce 4 to 7 times the emissions of the average EV.  For example, the average EV driven in upstate New York has emissions equal to a (hypothetical) 231 mpg gasoline car. And in California, a gasoline car would need to get 122 mpg to have emissions as low as the average EV.

A decade of improvement:

The change from the first analysis of global warming emissions from EVs and gasoline vehicles in 2012 (using 2009 powerplant data) is even more impressive. In UCS initial assessment, less than half the US lived where an EV produced fewer emissions than a 50 mpg car, while now nearly all of the US falls in that category. The improvement has been driven partially by increasing EV efficiency, but the major contribution has been from the reduction in electricity generation from coal power plants. See table below. Electricity from coal has fallen from 45% to 28% in less than a decade. At the same time, solar and wind electricity has grown from less than 2% to 8% in 2018.    

	2009	2016	2018
% of US population living in a “Best” region for EVs (>50 mpg equivalent)	45%	75%	94%
Fraction of electricity grid regions where an EV is lower emission than a 50mpg vehicle	9 of 26	16 of 26	22 of 26
fraction of US electricity from coal power plants	45%	30%	28%
fraction of US electricity from wind and solar power	2%	7%	8%

_______

_______

Economic and Climate Benefits of Electric Vehicles in China, the United States, and Germany, a 2019 study:

Mass adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is widely viewed as essential to address climate change and requires a compelling case for ownership worldwide. While the manufacturing costs and technical capabilities of EVs are similar across regions, customer needs and economic contexts vary widely. Assessments of the all-electric-range required to cover day-to-day driving demand, and the climate and economic benefits of EVs, need to account for differences in regional characteristics and individual travel patterns. To meet this need travel profiles for 1681 light-duty passenger vehicles in China, the U.S., and Germany were used to make the first consistent multiregional comparison of customer and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission benefits of EVs. Authors show that despite differences in fuel prices, driving patterns, and subsidies, the economic benefits/challenges of EVs are generally similar across regions. Individuals who are economically most likely to adopt EVs have GHG benefits that are substantially greater than for average drivers. Such “priority” EV customers have large (32%–63%) reductions in cradle-to-grave GHG emissions. It is shown that low battery costs (below approximately $100/kWh) and a portfolio of EV offerings are required for mass adoption of electric vehicles.

_____

Public Health and Climate Benefits and Trade‐Offs of U.S. Vehicle Electrification, a 2020 study:

Vehicle electrification is a common climate change mitigation strategy, with policymakers invoking co‐beneficial reductions in carbon dioxide (CO2) and air pollutant emissions. However, while previous studies of U.S. electric vehicle (EV) adoption consistently predict CO2 mitigation benefits, air quality outcomes are equivocal and depend on policies assessed and experimental parameters. Authors analyze climate and health co‐benefits and trade‐offs of six U.S. EV adoption scenarios: 25% or 75% replacement of conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, each under three different EV‐charging energy generation scenarios. They transfer emissions from tailpipe to power generation plant, simulate interactions of atmospheric chemistry and meteorology using the GFDL‐AM4 chemistry climate model, and assess health consequences and uncertainties using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Benefits Mapping Analysis Program Community Edition (BenMAP‐CE). Authors find that 25% U.S. EV adoption, with added energy demand sourced from the present‐day electric grid, annually results in a ~242 M ton reduction in CO2 emissions, 437 deaths avoided due to PM2.5 reductions (95% CI: 295, 578), and 98 deaths avoided due to lesser ozone formation (95% CI: 33, 162). Despite some regions experiencing adverse health outcomes, ~$16.8B in damages avoided are predicted. Peak CO2 reductions and health benefits occur with 75% EV adoption and increased emission‐free energy sources (~$70B in damages avoided). When charging‐electricity from aggressive EV adoption is combustion‐only, adverse health outcomes increase substantially, highlighting the importance of low‐to‐zero emission power generation for greater realization of health co‐benefits. These results provide a more nuanced understanding of the transportation sector’s climate change mitigation‐health impact relationship.

______

Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Zero-Emission Plug-In Battery Electric Vehicle Technology for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Trucks, a 2020 study:

Conventional diesel medium- and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDVs) create large amount of air emissions. With the advancement in technology and reduction in the cost of batteries, plug-in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are increasingly attractive options for improving energy efficiency and reducing air emissions of MHDVs. In this paper, authors compared the well-to-wheels (WTW) greenhouse gases (GHGs) and criteria air pollutant emissions of MHD BEVs with their conventional diesel counterparts across weight classes and vocations. They expanded the Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technologies (GREET) model to conduct the WTW analysis of MHDVs. The fuel economy for a wide range of MHDV weight classes and vocations, over various driving cycles, was evaluated using a high-fidelity vehicle dynamic simulation software (Autonomie). The environmental impacts of MHD BEVs are sensitive to the source of electricity used to recharge their batteries. The WTW results show that MHD BEVs significantly improve environmental sustainability of MHDVs by providing deep reductions in WTW GHGs, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and carbon monoxide emissions, compared to conventional diesel counterparts. Increasing shares of renewable and natural gas technologies in future national and regional electricity generation are expected to reduce WTW particulate matters and sulfur oxide emissions for further improvement of the environmental performance of MHD BEVs.

_______  

_______

Section-18

EV and electricity grid:  

_

EVs may interact with the grid via charging and discharging. The first mode is referred as G2V where the vehicle is charged from the grid, while V2G refers to when vehicles discharge power to the grid. The V2G mode could also be considered as a bidirectional charging, in which an EV can charge from and discharge to the grid at regular intervals. There are also other charging modes such as vehicle to building (V2B) and controlled charging. V2B refers to a home storage battery usage with no feedback to the grid, while controlled charging gathers signals from the grid to optimize the charging speed and time based on grid congestion. Few charging systems around the world currently use bi-directional charging, but various testing programmes are underway (Mwasilu et al., 2014). To investigate the impact of EVs on the grid and how EVs can be best integrated, two main aspects must be considered. First, driving and charging behaviour, which can be collected by daily travel surveys to develop charging load profiles. Second, the types of charging used and charging frequency to identify the proportion and typical daily patterns of slow and fast charging demand.

_

Increased electricity demand:  

Additional electricity generation will be required in the European Union to meet the extra energy demand arising from an 80% share of electric vehicles in 2050. The share of Europe’s total electricity consumption from electric vehicles will increase from approximately 0.03% in 2014 to around 4-5% by 2030 and 9.5% by 2050.

The additional electricity demand due to the high rates of electric vehicle ownership assumed for the future will need to be met by additional power generation. Furthermore, this additional energy needs to be integrated into the grid infrastructure across Europe. Critical questions are therefore how much electricity is needed, what type of generation is used to cover this additional electricity demand and how are charging peaks managed?

Until 2030, the additional energy demand by electric vehicles will be limited and will not significantly influence the electricity system. But, in the longer term, with high market shares of electric vehicles assumed in 2050, the required electricity demand will have more significant impact on power systems in Europe.

The share of electricity consumption required by an 80% share of electric vehicles in 2050 will vary between 3% and 25% of total electricity demand across the EU-28 Member States, depending upon the number of electric vehicles anticipated in each country. On average, for the EU-28, the proportion of total electricity demand required in 2050 is 9.5%, compared with the 1.3% assumed in the European Commission’s projection. Overall, an additional electrical capacity of 150 GW will be needed to charge electric cars. Additional electricity generation will be required for the rest of the world as well.

The “vast majority” of electric vehicle charging will occur at night, so electricity demand from vehicle charging will surge at midnight when off-peak electricity rates take effect, and when carbon-free electricity is not widely available. We would need an additional power during a peak charging period starting at midnight. Such an instantaneous spike in electricity demand may compromise grid reliability and necessitate investment in grid upgrades, particularly in urban areas.

_

Meeting the additional electricity demand:

The integration of the additional energy demand caused by electric vehicles poses challenges for the management of power systems at local, national and international levels. High shares of electric vehicles will require significant additional electricity generation which, in the absence of coordinated investment, may put stress on electricity infrastructure. Even between countries with a similar share of renewable energy, management strategies to accommodate the charging of a large number of electric vehicles can be very different, depending on the types of renewable energy and conventional power generation in each country. In countries with highly fluctuating renewable energy supplies, coordinating the energy demand from electric vehicles may become a major challenge.

It is clear, for example, that countries with high solar energy generation capacity, for which the preferred charging peak will be during the day, will need to apply different grid and power management strategies from countries that have only wind, or combined solar and wind electricity production. In regions with a weak network infrastructure, additional grid reinforcement or implementation of specific ‘smart charging’ approaches might be required to ensure an efficient and flexible electricity generation and distribution infrastructure.

_

Impacts on climate and the environment:

Increasing the numbers of electric vehicles can significantly reduce direct emissions of CO2 and air pollutants from road transport. However, these positive effects are partially offset by additional emissions caused by the additional electricity required and continued fossil fuel use in the power sector projection in 2050. An 80% share of electric vehicles in the 2050 passenger road transport fleet will result in lower emissions of both CO2 and air pollutants from the road transport sector itself. However, higher emissions would result from the associated fossil fuel combustion in the electricity-generating sector if reductions in electricity demand are not made in other sectors, e.g., by energy efficiency improvements.

Overall, the avoided CO2 emissions in the road transport sector outweigh the higher emissions from electricity generation. In the EU-28, a net reduction of 255 Mt CO2 could be delivered in 2050, an amount equivalent to around 10% of the total emissions from all sectors for that year, according to the European Commission projection. In countries with high shares of fossil fuel power plants, electric vehicle demand could, however, lead to higher CO2 emissions. The environmental benefit of electric vehicles in these instances would therefore not be fully realized.

_

For air pollutants, an 80% share of electric vehicles in 2050 will significantly reduce direct exhaust emissions of NOx, PM and SO2 from road transport, for each pollutant by more than 80% in comparison with 2010 levels. However, as for CO2, the overall reduction for NOx and PM will to some degree be offset by additional emissions coming from the electricity-generating sector — by 1% for NOx and 3% for PM10 (particulate matter with a diameter of 10 μm or less). The situation is different for SO2. The already relatively low SO2 emissions from road transport, coupled with the use of coal in power generation, will result in additional SO2 emissions, which exceed the reduction made in the road transport sector by a factor of 5. Additional abatement of the higher SO2 emissions would be required. The difference in emissions of air pollutants from the road transport sector and electricity generation cannot be compared directly in terms of their respective impacts on human health. Their impact depends to a large degree on the location, intensity and type of emission sources. Emissions from road transport occur at ground level and generally in areas where people live and work, such as in cities and towns, so much of the population is exposed to them. In contrast, power stations are generally outside cities, in less populated areas. As a result of this lower exposure, a shift of emissions from the road transport sector to the power generation sector can therefore be beneficial for health.

______

______

Electric Vehicles as a Grid Resource:  

Use of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) EV charging stations:

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) EV charging is a system that has a bi-directional electrical energy flow between plug-in EVs and the power grid. V2G technology enables EVs to store unused power and discharge it to the grid. V2G technology can improve the electrical components performance and add value for EV owners.

_

Electric vehicles serve an important transportation function, but they are typically in use for mobility less than 5% of the time. This limited use, coupled with the storage capability of EV batteries means that EV load on the grid can be flexible and also serve as a storage or regulation resource for the grid. The U.S. electric grid has extremely limited storage capacity. Thus every time electricity demand increases, generation must immediately increase to meet this demand. Because of their batteries, electric vehicles can store small amounts of electricity in their batteries and effectively decouple electricity generation from demand. This could benefit vehicle owners, distribution utilities, and regional transmission operators in a number of ways.

At the most basic level, electric vehicle charging can be managed so that the impact on the grid is minimal. Charging can be managed either through voluntary adoption of utility-offered time-of-use rates that reward off-peak charging (indirect control) or it can be managed through utility-controlled charging signals (direct control). This type of management would result in minimized additional load and grid impact from EVs as well as greater energy cost savings for EV owners and operators. Demand response programs are another area in which EVs can bring value to the electric grid. An aggregated group of EVs can respond to a signal from utilities or regional transmission operators to curtail charging at critical times to avoid high power prices or grid reliability issues. Participants in demand response programs can receive compensation from the regional transmission operator or distribution utilities that offer Demand Response programs.

Electric vehicles can also be used for energy arbitrage. By storing energy purchased during off-peak times and selling it back to the grid or using it to power home energy use (behind-the-meter) during peak load, EV owners or operators can save money, or even make money by storing energy. The storage capabilities of EVs also make them candidates for renewable load following, which means that they can capture and store excess solar or wind power at the time of generation and make it available for use during times of high demand.

The most advanced form of vehicle-to-grid integration involves wholesale market opportunities. EVs equipped with bidirectional chargers could best serve in the ancillary services markets of the regional transmission operator. EVs have the potential to provide Regulation, Operating Reserves, Energy Imbalance and Voltage Control. All of these services require small amounts of storage, but near instantaneous response to grid signals. They also require bidirectional chargers, which are not installed in EVs on the market today. 

A number of studies have developed estimates of the income an EV can produce for its owner when serving as a grid resource. Initial studies estimate that electric vehicle owners can make $300 to $500 per year through V2G. The most lucrative wholesale market (and perhaps the best fit for EV batteries) is the frequency regulation market. According to an article by Ferber, it is possible that electric vehicles can earn up to $5,000 a year in frequency regulation markets. Ferber goes on to point to the example of the Nuuve Corporation, a leading V2G pilot program, is currently testing 30 electric vehicles for the frequency regulation market in Denmark and expects to pay electric vehicle owners up to $10,000 over the lifetime of the car. 

There are a few barriers to widespread integration of EVs in wholesale electricity markets. As mentioned earlier in this section, EVs do not come equipped with bidirectional chargers. This means that in order to enable an EV to serve in a capacity that requires bidirectional charging, the EV must be retrofitted with a bidirectional charger. Under current manufacturer’s warranties, this will void the warranty on the battery. The other challenge with wholesale market opportunities is that they require a minimum resource size. In some ISOs this resource is 1 MW. This would require at least 300 electric vehicles to be aggregated into one resource. Electric vehicle adoption in most places has not reached the point where this is feasible.

_______

_______

Section-19

EV and renewable energy:

_

Electricity produced by fossil fuels that is used to power EVs produces high carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Additionally, electricity produced by nuclear power plants suffers from a poor environmental image, especially in light of the Fukushima nuclear meltdown where the environmental effects two years after the incident are still coming to light. Renewable, clean energy is the best choice for powering EVs.

Variable renewable energy (VRE) is a renewable energy source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature, like wind power and solar power, as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as dammed hydroelectricity, or biomass, or a relatively constant source such as geothermal power.  Intermittency can mean the extent to which a power source is unintentionally stopped or partially unavailable. Dispatchability is the ability of a given power source to increase and decrease output quickly on demand.

_

EV charging stations powered by renewable energy:

There is a major opportunity to position EVs as one of the biggest buyers of renewable electricity in the world. For context, RE100 companies—a network of corporations across the globe with 100% renewable energy targets—purchase over 220 terawatt-hours (TWh) of renewable energy each year, making them in aggregate today’s largest global buyer of renewable energy. Yet by 2030, EVs will need nearly three times as much electricity—640 TWh. (For sense of scale, that is equivalent to the annual electricity consumption of 58 million single family homes in the United States.)

EVs cause less carbon dioxide, ozone, and particulate pollution compared to their internal combustion vehicle predecessors, according to research by the Union of Concerned Scientists, even when EVs draw from electric grids powered by coal. However, EVs aren’t 100% clean unless they are powered fully by renewable energy resources. Today, too few EVs are powered by renewable energy and even fewer are 100% powered by renewables. We have an opportunity to change this. Industry should develop solutions to ensure the delivery of 100% renewably-powered EV charging—starting with electric bus, government, and company fleets. EVs can be charged at an electric charging station or using a solar panel. The use of renewable energy to power EV charging stations is one of the key opportunities for players in the electric vehicle charging market. Due to the lower price and easier installation of solar panels, solar powered charging stations have become ideal for homeowners or commercial buildings.

 _

-Electric vehicles create a paradigm shift for both the transport and power sectors, and could support variable renewable power growth through different charging schemes such as time-variable “smart charging” and vehicle to grid (V2G) electricity supply. Such systems can help support a global doubling of the share of renewable energy by 2030 compared to 2015.

-The eventual deployment of charging schemes such as smart charging and V2G can support the growth of variable renewable energy and can interplay with information communication technology (ICT) systems to maximize the technical features and minimize the operation costs using demand-side management tools.

-REmap – a global roadmap from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) to double renewables in the energy mix – estimates that a 160 million EVs by 2030 would provide sufficient battery capacity in major markets to support VRE at a large scale. Achieving this stock level, however, will be challenging and will require annual sales growth rates on the order of 30-40% between now and then. To achieve this will probably require that EV markets achieve a “tipping point” between 2020 and 2025, when they start to rapidly increase market share relative to ICE vehicles.

_

Depending on the national circumstances of power markets, grids, fuel mix and other factors that can play a role for integration of VRE sources to the grid, electric vehicles are among the key technologies that can help to provide flexibility to the power system. This occurs by using EV batteries to store excess electricity and to provide ancillary services to the grid, such as frequency regulation, shaving peak demand and power support to enhance the operation, and reserve capacity to secure the grid. One of the main advantages of EVs are their high level of flexibility in charging times which can efficiently support operation of the grid. A number of studies have emerged finding value in the linkage between EVs and VRE.

For example, a study in Portugal modelled the integration between a high vehicle share of EVs and a large scale of deployed solar PVs on the grid by 2030 and 2050. It found EVs to be a solar PV enabling technology, and a potentially promising solution to the surplus electricity generated by solar PV (Nunes, Brito and  Farias, 2013). Another possible value of batteries is for stationary storage at the end of the life-time of the EV (Mwasilu et al., 2014). China is expected to have 12,000 charging stations by 2020. A study by the China National Renewable Energy Centre (CNREC/ ERI, 2015) indicated that the storage benefits of the increased use of EVs will help China attain higher shares of variable renewable power (IRENA, 2016b). Notably, storage might not be urgently needed before an 80% of renewables share (Weiss and Shulz, 2013). EVs deployment levels are growing, which results in more demand for renewable power. This could make ambitious levels of as high as 80% for renewables in the power mix attainable, especially for countries with a high renewable energy targets.

IRENA’s electricity storage roadmap indicates that EVs can be used to enable a higher share of renewables in three ways:

(1) The V2G scheme allows electric vehicles to participate in grid ancillary services such as frequency regulation, load shifting, demand response, or energy management support in home;

(2) EV batteries can receive a second life for stationary applications. For example, China is already engaged in a 14 MW project to assess grid support through the use of second-life lithium ion batteries (IRENA, 2015);

(3) EVs could be designed so that batteries are replaced rather than charged at changing stations. This concept has been piloted in Israel and Denmark and is now being introduced to buses in China (IRENA, 2015).

According to IRENA’s REmap analysis, if a target of 160 million EVs worldwide can be reached by 2030, this would provide around 8,000 GWh/year in battery storage that could enhance installed power generation capacity. This is equivalent to approximately 1,200 GW of battery power capacity. Along with the pumped hydro storage and second-hand batteries estimated under REmap by 2030, this adds up to a total of 1,650 GW. This compares with approximately 3,700 GW of variable renewable power capacity.

_

EVs could be an enabler to achieve a higher share of VRE in the power system. To achieve this, some or all of the following will probably be necessary:

(i) Actively using the mobile battery storage system in the vehicle in V2G applications.

(ii) Use of second-hand batteries in a “second life” role as stationary battery storage systems;

(iii) Widespread deployment of charging technologies and infrastructure.

(iv) Evolution in consumer behaviour of EV owners, for example, becoming comfortable with variable charging rates and times.

(v) Provision of other ancillary services from EVs to the grid.

_

Electric transportation offers ideal opportunities for the broader introduction of renewables to the transport sector. As energy-consuming technologies, electric vehicles (EV) create new demand for electricity that can be supplied by renewables. In addition to the benefits of this shift, such as reducing CO2 emissions and air pollution, electric mobility also creates significant efficiency gains and could emerge as an important source of storage for variable sources of renewable electricity.

Figure below shows how electric vehicles could attract more renewable power:

_

_

Figure below shows that electric vehicles provide opportunities to link the renewable power and low-carbon transport sectors.

______

Large-scale adoption of electric mobility will spur renewable energy growth: 

An increase in the number of electric vehicles (EVs) will be instrumental in increasing the share of solar and wind energy in the energy mix, considering renewable energy sources are only intermittently available and are weather dependent, according to a new study.

The study titled “Accelerating electric mobility in India” by World Resources Institute (WRI) done for Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation added that the boost in EV industry would mean an increase in the availability of rechargeable batteries which could serve as electricity storage devices allowing steady use of power even when generation is intermittent. It further added that grid operators can store renewable energy in batteries and supply it back to the grid in case of unstable power supply.

“As the cost of battery packs fall with the boost of EVs, using batteries for electricity storage will become a viable proposition for grid operators. In addition to this, as the generation of renewable energy goes up in India, more batteries will be needed to store this electricity,” said the study.

The batteries that are integral to EVs enable electricity to be stored and used, when needed. This is extremely useful for enhancing the share of renewable energy which is not available at a steady rate but is dependent on weather conditions to a large extent.

Further, there is a potential secondary use of batteries, largely as static storage devices. With prolonged use in vehicles, batteries get replaced when they have 70 per cent to 80 per cent of their capacity consumed. These batteries can then be used in a stationary environment as energy storage systems for renewables.

“In the second life of a battery, they can last till they have about 40 per cent of their capacity. Using batteries judiciously in their second life is important for expanding the share of renewables in the energy mix of India,” said the study.

______

______

Section-20

BEV pros and cons:

___

Pros:

-1. EVs have zero tailpipe emissions as compared to cars using fossil fuel, which release harmful air pollutants including carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and particulate matter. However, they still have environmental costs. The electricity used to recharge EV batteries has to come from somewhere, and right now, most electricity is generated by burning fossil fuels. Of course, this produces pollution and GHGs. But according to the Electric Vehicle Association of Canada, even EVs recharged from coal-powered electric generators cut carbon emission roughly in half. EVs recharged from cleaner forms of electrical power generation, such as hydropower and nuclear plants, can reduce carbon emissions to less than one percent of those currently produced by internal combustion engines. So, even in the worst-case scenario, cars operated by EV batteries are cleaner than gas-powered cars.

-2. Electric cars are a big advantage both in terms of running and maintenance. The price of electricity to charge and run an electric car is less than 25% of the cost of driving a petrol car for the same distance. Moreover, maintenance cost of electric vehicles is low because there are less moving parts than in a petrol or diesel vehicle. The only substantial cost is that of replacing batteries, after 8 to 12 years of running. The United States Department of Energy has calculated that a typical EV can run for 43 miles on a dollar’s worth of electricity. Only a substantial drop in the cost of gasoline could give gas-powered cars anywhere near such a low cost per mile.

-3. EVs run more silently than their petrol or diesel counterparts. Switching to EVs would reduce noise pollution to a certain extent.

-4. EVs tend to have a lower center of gravity than conventional vehicles. This makes EVs more stable and less likely to roll over. Also, since they do not contain flammable fuel there is a lower risk of fire or explosion.

-5. The electric vehicle is easy to recharge, and the best part is you will no longer need to run to the fuel station to recharge your car before hitting the road! Even a normal household socket could be used for charging an electric car.

-6. In the world of automobiles, electric cars have the simplest driving method. Commercial electric cars come with a transmission comprising of only one really long gear and also don’t suffer from the stalling problem as petrol cars do. This effectively eliminates the need to add a clutch mechanism to prevent that from happening. Therefore, you can operate an electric car with just the accelerator pedal, brake pedal and steering wheel. Another really useful feature is regenerative braking. In normal cars, the braking process is a total wastage of kinetic energy that gets released as frictional heat. However, in an electric vehicle, the same energy is used to charge the batteries.

-7. In the case of electric cars, they produce their maximum torque output straight out of the bat. That means you have access to the entire torque output straight from standstill. It only starts decreasing as you progress towards the upper RPM range due to the phenomena of back EMF.

One primary drawback of the petrol engine’s working is that it produces peak torque only at a specific RPM range. As a virtue of its design, the torque produced by it starts from a very low value, goes up to its peak level and decreases again after that as the RPM’s increase. Petrol engines also experience output loss due to a large number of intermediate parts used to transmit the torque. The torque in a petrol car gets transmitted through the following path: Piston to Crankshaft to Clutch Assembly to Gearbox to Differential Gears and finally to the wheels. So, the net output by the time it reaches the wheel gets reduced by approximately 20% due to frictional losses.  

-8. Original owners of electric cars can receive financial incentives including tax credits, purchase grants, exemptions from import duties, and other fiscal incentives; exemptions from road, bridge and tunnel tolls, and from congestion pricing fees; and exemption of registration and annual use vehicle fees.

-9. Reduced harmful exhaust emissions is good news for our health. The better air quality will lead to fewer health problems and costs caused by air pollution.

-10. On a national level, EVs can help improve energy security.

-11. We know the cabin is silent but if you go for an EV, you will get better legroom too. Although, the front section can offer you a better storage space because the gear lever is not there, the rear section of the cabin gets you a flat floor which is why the passenger in the middle can also enjoy the ride to the fullest!

___

Cons:

-1. Electric vehicles are only as green as the energy sources used to charge them. Unless clean energy is used as a source to charge electric vehicles, we will just be relocating atmospheric pollution from the place of use of vehicles to the place of power generation. As per Indian BS-IV emission standards, gasoline cars cannot emit more than 1 g Carbon Monoxide, 0.1 g Hydrocarbon and 0.08 g Nitrogen Oxide per running kilometer. But when we use thermal electricity to charge an electric vehicle, apart from the mentioned pollutants, we also end up releasing sulphur dioxide as the source for thermal electricity is coal. Thermal electricity generated to charge an electric car running 1 km, emits 0.44 g nitrogen oxide and 0.72 g sulphur dioxide. Hydrocarbon and Carbon Monoxide is not produced from coal powered plants as there is no incomplete combustion. Therefore, charging an electric car would create more nitrogen oxide than running a gasoline car, as well as produce harmful sulphur dioxide if the energy source is thermal power. 67% of India’s energy is generated in thermal power plants, and 88% of thermal power is generated by highly polluting coal fired plants.

-2. The charging of EVs will put pressure on the grid but it is possible to set up EV charging stations on solar without touching the grid. Also, if you were to charge during night-time when the load is less and therefore does not have any impact on manufacturing or business activities.

-3. Most mining operations are accompanied by various forms of environmental degradation. Lithium, a key component in batteries of electric vehicles, is typically found in salt flat regions with water paucity. Lithium mining uses large quantities of water as well as toxic chemicals for the leaching process. The result is further water scarcity in the region accompanied by water contamination. Nickel and Cobalt, mined for use in the production of lithium ion batteries, add additional environmental risks. To mitigate the negative impact, focus on battery recycling is going to be critical.

-4. Although auto companies are finding more and more ways to make electric cars go further, they still have a shorter range than traditional cars. Usually, an electric car can get between 60 and 100 miles on a full charge. Depending on the fuel efficiency of a car and the size of its gas tank, some can make it up to 400 miles on a tank of gas.

-5. Filling up a gas tank might take up to three minutes at the gas station, while recharging the battery of an electric car takes much longer. Depending on the model, an electric car can sometimes take up to 20 hours to fully charge. Newer and more expensive models can charge in as quickly as four hours. However, having a charging station in your garage helps make this more manageable and kits are available to help cut down the charging time.

-6. The fully electric models of specific cars are always more expensive than their gas-powered equivalents. Basic electric models start at around $30,000 with luxury model prices climbing to $80,000 and more. Usually, a car buyer will pay at least $10,000 more for an electric car than they would for the same type of car in a gas model. As technology continues to evolve, this price gap is likely to close.

A poll of 3,000 UK drivers by the RAC, published recently, shows the importance of prices, with 78% of motorists saying pure electric cars are still too expensive compared with conventional vehicles of a similar size and just 9% saying their next car would be electric. The single biggest barrier to a driver choosing an electric car has to be cost.  

-7. Some areas have lots of electric vehicle (EV) charging stations in various parking lots and on the sides of the road. This isn’t the case in every city. Road trips can be difficult in electric cars. You can’t take your home charging station with you on the road. Electric powered vehicles require charging stations, and for people to travel long distances there needs to be a network of such stations located strategically.

-8. Car makers have been building traditional car models for over 100 years, but mass production on electric vehicles as we now know them didn’t start until the ’90s. With less of a history, there just aren’t as many electric models available as there are gas-powered.

-9. Batteries are what makes these vehicles heavy. A battery pack of an average electric car can weigh up to a 1,000 pounds or 450 kg (approx.) This a disadvantage because weight puts pressure on batteries and they drain out faster. Heavy battery also increases weight of EV and reduces its energy efficiency.

-10. Electric cars may be cancer-causing as they emit extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic fields (EMF). Recent studies of the EMF emitted by these automobiles have claimed either that they pose a cancer risk for the vehicles’ occupants or that they are safe. Unfortunately, much of the research conducted on this issue has been industry-funded by companies with vested interests on one side of the issue or the other which makes it difficult to know which studies are trustworthy.

Electric cars produce electromagnetic fields; however, they did not affect cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIED) function or programming. Driving and charging of electric cars is likely safe for patients with CIEDs.

-11. Amnesty International says human rights abuses, including the use of child labour, in the extraction of minerals, like cobalt, used to make the batteries that power electric vehicles is undermining ethical claims about the cars.

______

______

Pros & Cons of buying A Tesla:

The news is filled with stories of city air pollution levels dropping during the recent COVID-19 quarantines. That’s led many people to suggest that post-pandemic EV purchases could help continue the downturn in carbon emissions as more and more restrictions are lifted. Here are a series of pros & cons of buying a Tesla with the coronavirus backdrop.

Pros:

-1. Improved air quality. The European Environmental Agency (EEA) has confirmed NASA and European Space Agency data that show a rapid, dramatic reduction in air pollution over those areas most affected by the COVID-19 lockdowns. Tesla leads the way on the topic of air pollution, not only by offering zero carbon emissions, but because, according the company website, the “HEPA filtration system [is] capable of stripping the outside air of pollen, bacteria, and pollution before they enter the cabin and systematically scrubbing the air inside the cabin to eliminate any trace of these particles” — if you get the Model S or Model X.

-2. Performance. The Model S can outrun Ferraris and Lamborghinis in a 0-60 mph sprint. The car has been named the car of the century and has won practically every award there is to win. If you want performance, there is basically nothing that beats the Model S Performance.

-3. Over-the-air software updates. Tesla cars regularly receive over-the-air software updates that add new features and enhance existing ones over Wi-Fi’s. This includes providing power boosts, more efficiency/range, new games in Tesla’s unique “Arcade” center or new “Theater” options, Autopilot improvements, and more.

-4. Innovative technology. Tesla’s battery and powertrain systems are “impressive,” due to both engineering standpoint and efficient smartphone app. There are various innovations that Tesla may unveil in its upcoming battery day: testing new cell chemistries; exploring new sources of supply; devising easier and cheaper ways to assemble battery packs; and securing supplies of raw materials such as lithium. The most important key to the Tesla advancement is the ongoing battery research is said to be chemical additives, materials, and coatings that will reduce internal stress and enable batteries to store more energy for longer periods.

-5. The Supercharger network. Tesla’s Supercharger network has long been seen as one of the biggest draws to the Tesla brand. It not only makes electric life more relaxing, it can even provide an easier road trip than you get in a gasoline car, as many Tesla owners will tell you. Looking at the quick expansion of the network really makes one see how much of a leader Tesla has been and how far it has taken the market from a time when reliable charging was elusive. The “extensive, multinational fast-charging network” not only makes long road trips possible, but it’s “an intelligent network, in constant communication with Tesla vehicles so that extended routes can be plotted.”

-6. Autopilot’s potential. Tesla zooms ahead of other automakers in many ways, including accentuating driver focus and safety through its Autopilot feature. With 8 external cameras, a radar, 12 ultrasonic sensors, and a powerful onboard computer, Autopilot’s suite of driver assistance features is partly the result of a neural network that has accumulated billions of miles of driver experience. Tesla’s accumulated autonomy data set is truly unique, and it has some automakers worried that they’re so far behind Tesla in R&D that catching up is going to be a long, strenuous, and possibly futile race. If progress continues as many expect with Tesla Autopilot R&D, it may be able to operate at all speeds on many different types of roads, another method of surpassing the competition.

_

Cons:

-1. Price. The cheapest Model 3 is still about twice as costly as the least expensive gas-powered sedan you can now buy. Then again, recently the Tesla Model 3, Model X, and Model S all got price reductions. The Model 3 starts at less than $40,000, which is a moderate price, while also offering some serious long-term cost savings.

-2. Charging times. Tesla’s big batteries have a down side; they can take a long time to charge. In comparison to a quick gas station stop, this could be an issue in certain circumstances.

-3. Lack of dealerships. Tesla sells its EVs differently from other auto manufacturers: it operates stores and can sell directly to consumers in many US states. The lack of traditional dealerships makes the purchase or leasing process more awkward than the traditional process. On the other hand, buying experience is so dramatically better than buying through a conventional auto dealer.

-4. Ludicrous Mode. Ludicrous Mode, which takes advantage of powerful batteries and dual electric motors to deliver staggering acceleration, is almost too much for Tesla’s sedans and SUVs. The claimed zero-to-60-mph time of 2.7 seconds when its Ludicrous Mode is engaged; is interesting and most fun, but mighty expensive.

-5. Lack of inventory. Tesla “tends to sell cars as fast as it makes them,” which limits the pre-built inventory from which customer has to choose. A 4-to-6 week delivery time is the norm for the Model 3.

-6. The federal tax credit has expired for Tesla. On January 1, 2020, the federal tax credit available for new Tesla cars sold in the US completely ended. That’s because the company reached the limit of 200,000 plug-in car deliveries in the US. Tesla was the first manufacturer to lose eligibility for the federal tax credit, with General Motors second, having lost its eligibility on April 1, 2020.

______

______

Section-21 

EV Battery Research:  

_

-1. Nanowire battery can hold 10 times the charge of existing lithium-ion battery:

Stanford researchers have found a way to use silicon nanowires to reinvent the rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that power laptops, iPods, video cameras, cell phones, and countless other devices. The new technology, developed through research led by Yi Cui, assistant professor of materials science and engineering, produces 10 times the amount of electricity of existing lithium-ion, known as Li-ion, batteries. A laptop that now runs on battery for two hours could operate for 20 hours, a boon to ocean-hopping business travelers. “It’s not a small improvement,” Cui said. “It’s a revolutionary development.” The breakthrough is described in a paper, “High-performance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanowires,” published online in Nature Nanotechnology, written by Cui, his graduate chemistry student Candace Chan and five others.

The greatly expanded storage capacity could make Li-ion batteries attractive to electric car manufacturers. Cui suggested that they could also be used in homes or offices to store electricity generated by rooftop solar panels.

The electrical storage capacity of a Li-ion battery is limited by how much lithium can be held in the battery’s anode, which is typically made of carbon. Silicon has a much higher capacity than carbon, but also has a drawback.

Silicon placed in a battery swells as it absorbs positively charged lithium atoms during charging, then shrinks during use as the lithium is drawn out of the silicon. This expand/shrink cycle typically causes the silicon (often in the form of particles or a thin film) to pulverize, degrading the performance of the battery.

Cui’s battery gets around this problem with nanotechnology. The lithium is stored in a forest of tiny silicon nanowires, each with a diameter one-thousandth the thickness of a sheet of paper. The nanowires inflate four times their normal size as they soak up lithium. But, unlike other silicon shapes, they do not fracture.

______

-2. Vertically aligned carbon nanotube electrode:

NAWA Technologies has designed and patented an Ultra Fast Carbon Electrode, which is says is a game-changer in the battery market. It uses a vertically-aligned carbon nanotube (VACNT) design and NAWA says it can boost battery power ten fold, increase energy storage by a factor of three and increase the lifecycle of a battery five times. The company sees electric vehicles as being the primary beneficiary, reducing the carbon footprint and cost of battery production, while boosting performance. NAWA says that 1000 km range could become the norm, with charging times cut to 5 minutes to get to 80 per cent. The technology could be in production as soon as 2023.

_____

-3. Sodium-ion batteries:

Scientists in Japan are working on new types of batteries that don’t need lithium like your smartphone battery. These new batteries will use sodium, one of the most common materials on the planet rather than rare lithium – and they’ll be up to seven times more efficient than conventional batteries. Research into sodium-ion batteries has been going on since the eighties in an attempt to find a cheaper alternative to lithium. By using salt, the sixth most common element on the planet, batteries can be made much cheaper. Commercializing the batteries is expected to begin for smartphones, cars and more in the next five to 10 years.

_____

-4. Evaluation of Current, Future, and Beyond Li-Ion Batteries for the Electrification of Light Commercial Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities a 2017 study:

In this study, authors develop a systematic methodological framework to analyze the performance demands for electrification through an approach that couples considerations for battery chemistries, load profiles based on a set of vehicle specific drive cycles, and finally applying these loads to a battery pack that solves a 1-D thermally coupled battery model within the AutoLion-ST framework. Using this framework, authors analyze the performance of a fully electric LCV over its lifetime under various driving conditions and explore the trade-offs between battery metrics and vehicle design parameters. Authors find that in order to enable a driving range of over 400-miles for LCVs at a realistic battery pack weight, specific energies of over 400 Wh/kg at the cell-level and 200 Wh/kg at the pack-level needs to be achieved. A crucial factor that could bring down both the energy requirements and cost is through a vehicle re-design that lowers the drag coefficient to about 0.3.

_____

-5. A new battery chemistry promises safer high-voltage lithium-ion batteries, a 2020 study:

There are safety issues with current lithium-ion batteries that can damage equipment and have been known to start fires. Researchers at the Graduate School of Engineering and Graduate School of Science at the University of Tokyo came up with a way to improve safety and provide more charge.

“A battery’s voltage is limited by its electrolyte material. The electrolyte solvent in lithium-ion batteries is the same now as it was when the batteries were commercialized in the early 1990s,” said Professor Atsuo Yamada. “We thought there was room for improvement, and we found it. Our new fluorinated cyclic phosphate solvent (TFEP) electrolyte greatly improves upon existing ethylene carbonate (EC), which is widely used in batteries today.”

EC is notoriously flammable and is unstable above 4.3 volts; TFEP, on the other hand, is nonflammable and can tolerate greater voltages of up to 4.9 volts. This extra voltage in an otherwise identically sized package can mean the batteries can last longer before they need another charge. As lithium ion-powered electric vehicles proliferate, this extra range and safety would no doubt prove extremely useful.

_____

-6. AI driven battery: 2020:

In a breakthrough that aims to make the process of Original Equipment Manufacturers finding the right battery for their electric vehicle a more optimized process, EV battery producer InoBat has developed the world’s first system that uses artificial intelligence to deliver the ideal battery for any application. After only one year in development, InoBat’s world first battery developed through a combination of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and High Throughput (HTP) technology, enables them to create better batteries more quickly and efficiently, while delivering an increase in operational range for current best-in-class electric vehicles of almost 20%. This technology enables InoBat to reduce its dependence on cobalt, in addition to also boosting energy density to a goal of 330 Wh/kg and 1,000 Wh/I by the end of 2023. The world’s first intelligent battery marks a huge leap forward in the electrification of transport. They want to fast track innovation to ensure the best batteries for any type of electric vehicle.

______

-7. New Battery Technology enables charging Electric Cars up to 90% in just 6 minutes: 2020:

Unlike conventional cars that use internal combustion engines, electric cars are solely powered by lithium ion batteries, so the battery performance defines the car’s overall performance. However, slow charging times and weak power are still barriers to be overcome. In light of this, a POSTECH research team has recently developed a faster charging and longer lasting battery material for electric cars.

The research teams of Professor Byoungwoo Kang and Dr. Minkyung Kim of the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at POSTECH and Professor Won-Sub Yoon in the Department of Energy Science at Sungkyunkwan University have together proved for the first time that when charging and discharging Li-ion battery electrode materials, high power can be produced by significantly reducing the charging and discharging time without reducing the particle size. These research findings were published in the recent issue of Energy & Environmental Science, a leading international journal in the energy materials field.

For fast charging and discharging of Li-ion batteries, methods that reduce the particle size of electrode materials were used so far. However, reducing the particle size has a disadvantage of decreasing the volumetric energy density of the batteries.

To this, the research team confirmed that if an intermediate phase in the phase transition is formed during the charging and discharging, high power can be generated without losing high energy density or reducing the particle size through rapid charging and discharging, enabling the development of long-lasting Li-ion batteries.

In the case of phase separating materials that undergo the process of creating and growing new phases while charging and discharging, two phases with different volumes exist within a single particle, resulting in many structural defects in the interface of the two phases. These defects inhibit the rapid growth of a new phase within the particle, hindering quick charging and discharging.

Using the synthesis method developed by the research team, one can induce an intermediate phase that acts as a structural buffer that can dramatically reduce the change in volume between the two phases in a particle.

In addition, it has been confirmed that this buffering intermediate phase can help create and grow a new phase within the particle, improving the speed of insertion and removal of lithium in the particle. This in turn proved that the intermediate phase formation can dramatically increase the charging and discharging speed of the cell by creating a homogenous electrochemical reaction in the electrode composed of numerous particles. As a result, the Li-ion battery electrodes synthesized by the research team charge up to 90% in six minutes and discharge 54% in 18 seconds, a promising sign for developing high-power Li-ion batteries.

“The conventional approach has always been a trade-off between its low energy density and the rapid charge and discharge speed due to the reduction in the particle size,” remarked Professor Byoungwoo Kang, the corresponding author of the paper. He elaborated, “This research has laid the foundation for developing Li-ion batteries that can achieve quick charging and discharging speed, high energy density, and prolonged performance.”

Note:

Phase transition is a process in which lithium is inserted and dislodged during charging and discharging and the existing phase of the substance changes into a new phase.

_____

-8. Solid-state batteries:

These batteries use solid electrodes and electrolytes and have relatively better electrochemical stability than liquid batteries. They will solve the problems associated with lithium-ion batteries such as low safety, low energy density, slow charging speeds, and short life cycle. Their drawback? A high failure after repeated charging. But Samsung’s Advanced Institute of Technology and its R&D Institute in Japan claim to have solved that issue. Researchers swapped out the normal lithium metal anodes for a new silver-carbon composite, a change that supports larger capacity, longer cycle life and enhances the battery’s overall safety. The ultra-thin composite layer reduces overall anode thickness while increasing energy density. Perhaps even more importantly, it prevents short-circuiting.

It’s estimated that this new battery configuration would allow vehicles to travel up to 500 miles before requiring a recharge, something it can do at least 1,000 times. That means that a new car with this technology could travel 500,000 miles before needing replacement. Solid-state batteries also have even faster charging times than today’s best lithium-ion batteries. The prototype is also approximately 50 percent smaller than conventional lithium-ion batteries, so it’s lighter and easier to design around.

Of course, it will be some time before these prototype batteries are implemented at the commercial level. But the news appears to bode well for an EV market that places a premium on range.

_____

-9. New Record-Crushing Battery lasts 1 million miles in Electric Cars:

The research team was led by Jeff Dahn, a physicist and professor who partnered with Tesla to help the company advance its battery research. In a paper published in 2019 in the Journal of the Electrochemical Society, the authors described a battery that Dahn said “should be able to power an electric vehicle for over one million miles and last at least two decades in grid energy storage.”

The battery uses lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) for its cathode (positively-charged electrode) and artificial graphite for its anode (negatively-charged electrode). The cathodes of existing batteries use small NMC crystals, but this one uses larger crystals, resulting in a structure that one researcher explained is less likely to develop cracks while the battery charges; that was one of the primary improvements contributing to a longer overall lifespan.

The other was a reformulation of the material that carries ions between the battery’s cathode and its anode. Like its predecessors, the new battery uses a lithium salt with additives, and the research team devoted a lot of research and time to optimizing the blend of ingredients.

The team openly shared details of their work in such a way that other researchers and companies could recreate the technology, saying they wanted it to serve as a benchmark in the field. However, Tesla patented new lithium-ion battery technology, and Dahn was one of its inventors.

______

______

Section-22

Future developments vis-à-vis EV:  

_

Benefits of the electrification of urban mobility:

First, the electrification of transport supports national and local ambitions for cleaner mobility. Even without significant changes in the sources of electricity generation – primarily coal, natural gas and renewables – an electric vehicle (EV) can still reduce CO2 emissions by 60% compared with internal-combustion engines. With more than 20% of emissions coming from light-duty vehicles in the US, EVs could be a major factor in improving air quality and the health of urban residents.

Second, as battery prices fall, EVs will soon provide cheaper mobility for individuals and fleets. With lower operating costs, the total cost of ownership for EVs – that is, how much owners spend over its useful life – should reach parity with internal-combustion vehicles over the next five years and continue to decrease. Shared across multiple customers, their patterns will also be optimized to reduce congestion in cities.

Third, if charging times and locations are carefully planned, EVs could provide additional benefits. Smart charging could schedule EVs to charge when electricity prices are low and stop charging when demand for electricity is too high. EV batteries can also store surplus electricity and distribute it back to the grid on demand – a feature that could be particularly significant for large fleets of EVs.

The current approach to the electrification of urban mobility – a steady, gradual change, which is called proliferation – would fail to maximize these potential benefits. Current programs encourage the purchase of privately owned EVs, which spend 95% of their time parked, limiting the volume of miles or kilometers actually electrified. Current approaches also deploy EV-charging infrastructure based on the patterns of privately owned vehicles, primarily in residential and business areas. Failure to integrate intelligently with the power grid can limit the business case for the charging operator and could lead to grid instability if too many EVs charge at the same time – especially if it coincides with peak demand times, like weekday evenings.

Smarter cities will take a more integrated and assertive approach to make the most of electric mobility by converging the grid edge and mobility evolutions, a paradigm called transformation. These cities will encourage the electrification of high-use vehicles, especially fleets of shared, autonomous vehicles, to increase the volume of miles electrified. They will deploy charging stations to meet the needs of future mobility patterns, focusing on shared, autonomous fleets as well as private owners, and integrated with the electricity grid to facilitate smart charging at the best times. Transformation could bring the share of electrified miles up to 35% in some US cities by 2030.

While there are benefits in proliferation, accelerating the transition through transformation would create additional value to the society, with more electrified miles and the convergence of mobility and energy transformations.

-1. Electrified autonomous vehicles will revolutionize urban mobility by decreasing the overall cost per mile by up to 40% and reducing congestion in cities.

-2. Fleets that are integrated with clean, digitalized, decentralized and non-dispatchable electricity resources will boost consumption of electricity generated by solar and wind generation, lessening the need to curtail production of these clean energy sources and further reducing total emissions.

-3. Public and commercial fleets of electrified vehicles will introduce more flexibility to electricity systems through smarter charging and ancillary services, optimizing the electricity consumption and generation.

Taken together, the benefits of transformation could quadruple the value of new mobility patterns for society – up to $635 billion in the U.S. by 2030.

_____

Future Trends, Developments and Research:  

The adoption of EVs has opened doors for new possibilities and ways to improve both the vehicles and the systems associated with it, the power system, for example. EVs are being considered as the future of vehicles, whereas the smart grid appears to be the grid of the future. V2G is the link between these two technologies and both get benefitted from it. With V2G comes other essential systems required for a sustainable EV scenario—charge scheduling, virtual power plant (VPP), smart metering etc. The existing charging technologies have to improve a lot to make EVs widely accepted. The charging time has to be decreased extensively for making EVs more flexible. At the same time, chargers and EVSEs have to able to communicate with the grid for facilitating V2G, smart metering, and if needed, bidirectional charging. Better batteries are a must to take the EV technology further. There is a need for batteries that use non-toxic materials and have higher power density, less cost and weight, more capacity, and needs less time to recharge. Though technologies better than Li-ion have been discovered already, they are not being pursued industrially because of the huge costs associated with creating a working version. Besides, Li-ion technology has the potential to be improved a lot more. Li-air batteries could be a good option to increase the range of EVs. EVs are likely to move away from using permanent magnet motors which use rare-earth materials. The motors of choice can be induction motor, synchronous reluctance motor, and switched reluctance motor. Tesla is using an induction motor in its models at present. Motors with internal permanent magnet may stay in use. Wireless power transfer systems are likely to replace the current cabled charging system. Concepts revealed by major automakers adopted this feature to highlight their usefulness and convenience. The Rolls-Royce 103EX and the Vision Mercedes-Maybach 6 can be taken as example for that. Electric roads for wireless charging of vehicles may appear as well. Though this is not still viable, the situation may change in the future. Recent works in this sector includes the work of Electrode, an Israeli startup, which claims to be able to achieve this feat in an economic way. Vehicles that follow a designated route along the highway, like trucks, can get their power from overhead lines like trains or trams. It will allow them to gather energy as long as their route resides with the power lines, then carry on with energy from on-board sources. Such a system has been tested by Siemens using diesel-hybrid trucks from Scania on a highway in Sweden. New ways of recovering energy from the vehicle may appear. Goodyear has demonstrated a tire that can harvest energy from the heat generated there using thermo-piezoelectric material. There are also chances of solar-powered vehicles. Until now, these have not appeared useful as installed solar cells only manage to convert up to 20% of the input power. Much research is going on to make the electronics and sensors in EVs more compact, rugged and cheaper—which in many cases are leading to advanced solid-state devices that can achieve these goals with promises of cheaper products if they can be mass-produced. Some examples can be the works on gas sensors, smart LED drivers, smart drivers for automotive alternators, advanced gearboxes, and compact and smart power switches to weather harsh conditions. The findings may prove helpful for studies regarding fail-proof on-board power supplies for EVs. The future research topics will of course, revolve around making the EV technology more efficient, affordable, and convenient. A great deal of research has already been conducted on making EVs more affordable and capable of covering more distance: energy management, materials used for construction, different energy sources etc. More of such researches are likely to go on emphasizing on better battery technologies, ultracapacitors, fuel cells, flywheels, turbines, and other individual and hybrid configurations. FCVs may get significant attention in military and utility-based studies, whereas the in-wheel drive configuration for BEVs may be appealing to researchers focusing on better urban transport systems. Better charging technologies will remain a crucial research topic in near future. This is one of the areas the EV technology is lacking very badly; wireless charging technologies are very likely to attract more researchers’ attention. A lot of research has already been done incorporating EVs and the grid: the challenges and possibilities that the EVs bring with them to the existing grid and also to the grid of the future. With more implementation of smart grids, distributed generation, and renewable energy sources, researches in these fields are likely to increase. And as researches in the entire aforementioned field’s increase, exploration for better algorithms to run the systems is bound to rise.

Figure below shows the major trends and sectors for future developments for EVs.

______

No skyrocketing growth of EVs:   

It’s easy to fall for strident statistics celebrating the “astonishing” growth in electric cars (so many hundred percent this year, so many hundred percent next) until you remember that there are still very few electric cars around: 100 percent growth from not very much is not much more. Back in October 2014, an article in Forbes spoke of “skyrocketing” growth in electric cars in the (US) states of California, Georgia, Washington, Michigan, and Texas. In Texas for example, it cited a 128 percent growth in electric cars in just 12 months, which sounds extremely impressive until you look at the actual numbers: there were 6533 electric cars at the time of writing compared to 2862 the year before, but that was less than 1/1000 of the total number of cars registered in Texas at the time (7.7 million). In California, the proportion of electric cars isn’t much better (five in a thousand according to the US Energy Information Administration, EIA in 2014), with electrics accounting for just 5.5 percent of new car sales in 2019 (according to the LA Times). According to the EIA’s market analysis of electric vehicles in May 2018, the reasons for the slow growth in electric cars include relatively low gas prices, improved economy of conventional engines, and the continued barrier to entry for electric vehicles (the initial purchase price is still much higher).

_

People have been predicting the demise of the internal combustion engine, caused by our surpassing “peak oil” production, for over half a century (especially since the energy crisis of the early 1970s)—and we’re still surrounded by a billion gas guzzlers. Improvements in petroleum prospecting and recovery and better car design and efficiency have extended the life of this old technology far beyond what many people thought possible. Is there any reason why, 40 years on, in the middle of the 21st century, we’re not going to find ourselves in exactly the same position: a few more electric cars on the roads but the majority of us still rattling round in gas-powered crates? According to 2015 predictions by the US Energy Information Administration, even by 2040, around 46 percent of cars will still be using gasoline only, while another 43 percent will be micro hybrid or flex fuel. A mere 2 percent will be fully electric or plug-in hybrids, 5 percent will be full hybrids, and 4 percent will be diesel. Dramatic environmental damage—a sudden acceleration in climate change or its human impacts—could change everything, but so could a meteorite impact from space or a global epidemic. However rational the arguments in favor of electric cars, and however much environmentalists would like things to be otherwise, the world has a huge attachment to dirty gasoline technology—and that’s unlikely to change anytime soon.

_____

_____

Section-23

EV myths:

_

Myth: Electric vehicles are more expensive than ICE vehicles.

Fact: Upfront cost of EVs may be higher than their ICE counterparts today but continues to go down year over year, with advancements in battery technology and economies of scale. Additionally, EVs account for significant savings in fuel costs and maintenance costs. Higher daily run of the vehicle translates to better fuel cost savings with electric vehicles: a principle which may be applied to particularly intensive mobility use-cases like deliveries, ride-hailing, and public transport systems.

The cost of owning a vehicle can broadly be broken down into three categories – upfront cost (cost of purchasing the vehicle), fuel costs (cost of running the vehicle) and maintenance costs (cost of servicing and general upkeep). The total cost of ownership (TCO), however, shows that EVs today cost almost as much as an ICE vehicle for a usage of 1.60 lakh kms (warranty for popular electric cars). Here’s how:

Upfront costs: The average upfront cost of top 10 ICE vehicle models based on 2019 sales figures (India) is about INR 8 lakh (getting more expensive due to BS VI emissions norms), compared to the average cost of 3 most accessible electric vehicles (under INR 15 lakh: Mahindra e-Verito, Tata Tigor EV, Tata Nexon EV) at about INR 12.5 lakh.

Fuel costs: Considering recent numbers, the fuel cost of running the ICE vehicle comes out to about INR 3.6-5.6/km. For EVs, the cost of running comes close to INR 1/km driven. Thus, the potential for cost savings by switching to electric mobility increases with the kilometers driven.

Maintenance costs: The maintenance costs for ICE vehicles, (with at least one service recommended at every 5000-10,000 kms), comes up to about INR 90,000 for approximately 1.60 lakh kms. EVs, on the other hand, do not require oil changes, oil filter and spark plug replacements, and have much fewer liquids or moving parts. The maintenance cost of EVs therefore reduces to anywhere between half to a third as compared to ICE vehicles.

Thus, by running EVs more (about 150-200 kms/day), the difference in upfront costs could be bridged within 10-12 months (or as early as 8 months factoring in fiscal and non-fiscal government incentives), purely based on lower fuel costs. For corporates and fleet operators in employee transport, ride hailing or deliveries, utilization is already around this range. The transition to EVs thus makes immediate sense for them, lowering costs, travel time as well as Scope 3 emissions. 

Further, if one factors in the income tax benefits of up to INR 2.5 lakh announced under Union Budget 2019, ‘Green Car loans’ by banks such as SBI, lower GST for EVs, proposed registration tax exemptions for electric vehicles as well as additional central and state-led incentives, electric vehicles are at parity or cheaper than their petrol or diesel counterparts for individual users as well, over their lifetimes.

Note: 10 lakhs = 1 million in India.

Incentives like the federal EV tax credit mean that many EVs cost the same or less than an average new vehicle in the U.S.  Many states have additional tax credits on top of the federal ones. Additionally, the average electric vehicle driver will save between $700 and $1600 a year in fuel (the cost of electricity compared to gasoline). Due to a cleaner, more streamlined system under the hood, an EV may save the average driver about 46% in annual maintenance costs, according to one federal government study.

Recently MIT team calculated both the emissions and the full lifetime cost, including purchase price, maintenance and fuel, for almost every new car model on the market. The conclusions: electric cars are “easily more climate-friendly than gas-burning ones,” and over their lifetime, they often end up being cheaper. 

_____

Myth: Switching to an electric vehicle will just mean that the same amount of pollution comes from the electricity generation rather than from the tailpipe — I’ll just be switching from oil to coal.

Fact: Electric vehicles are cleaner than vehicles powered by burning dirty fossil fuels, full stop. A fully electric vehicle uses electricity to power a battery – this means no gasoline, no dirty oil changes, and no internal combustion engine. Studies show that driving on electricity produces significantly fewer emissions than using gasoline — across the nation — and is getting better over time. EVs cause less carbon dioxide, ozone, and particulate pollution compared to their internal combustion vehicle, even when EVs draw from electric grids powered by coal. In some areas, like many on the West Coast that rely largely on wind or hydro power, the emissions are significantly lower for EVs. And that’s today. As we retire more coal plants and bring cleaner sources of power online, the emissions from electric vehicle charging drop even further. Additionally, in some areas, night-time charging will increase the opportunity to take advantage of wind power — another way to further reduce emissions.

A caveat to consider is that when coal power plants supply the majority of the power in a given area, electric vehicles may emit more CO2 and SO2 pollutants due to coal burning as compared to gasoline burning ICE vehicles. However electrical vehicles are far more energy efficient than ICE vehicles in converting stored energy into propulsion, so on the whole, EVs charged by coal fired power plant would emit less CO2 than ICE vehicles. Also, such power plants are generally outside cities, in less populated areas. As a result of this lower exposure, a shift of air pollutants from the road transport sector to the power generation sector can therefore be beneficial for health.

_____

Myth: Electricity bill will go up. Because I’m charging a car, my electricity bill will increase a lot.

Fact: While you’ll spend more on electricity, the savings on gas will more than cover it. If you drive a pure battery electric vehicle 15,000 miles a year at current electricity rates (assuming $0.12 per kilowatt hour though rates vary throughout the country), you’ll pay about $500 per year for the electricity to charge your battery, but you’ll save about $1900 in gas (assuming $3.54 per gallon, a 28 miles per gallon vehicle, and 15,000 miles driven). So $1900 minus $500 equals $1400 in savings – a 74% reduction in fueling costs. Some utilities are offering EV owners lower off-peak/nighttime rates. The more we successfully advocate for these off-peak incentives, the lower your electricity payments will go.

_____

Myth: EVs can’t drive very far before their batteries run out of power.

Fact: The range of EV can handle most day-to-day driving and are constantly improving. It is true that fueling an electric vehicle takes a different type of planning. But the range of today’s EVs exceeds the needs for the average American driver. The majority of drivers in the US drive less than 35 miles each day, sufficient for a fully charged battery electric vehicle (most can go 70 to 130 miles on one charge), and an extended range electric vehicle (that drives about 35 miles on electric and then the gasoline power kicks in). Using a 220-volt outlet and charging station, a plug-in hybrid recharges in about 100 minutes, an extended range plug-in electric in about four hours, and a pure electric in six to eight hours. A regular 110-volt outlet will mean significantly longer charging times, but for plug-in hybrids and extended range electrics, this outlet may be sufficient. Most of the time, the battery will not be empty when you plug in, thus reducing charging time.

Most people will charge at home, and public and workplace charging is rapidly increasing. Drivers have an increasing number of places where they can charge an EV; the number of public and workplace EV charging points in the U.S. increased from 430 in 2008 to over 68,800 in 2019.

With proper route and trip planning, fleet operators can incorporate an optimal balance of overnight slow charging with fast charge cycles, while also making sure the vehicle is always available for use when required. Companies can save anywhere between 5-30% in costs combining the use of EVs and route planning technologies.

_____

Myth: Charging an electric vehicle on solar power is a futuristic dream.

Fact: The technology to power your EV with solar power is already available. The investment in solar panels pays off faster when the solar power is not only replacing grid electricity, but replacing much more expensive gasoline. According to Plug In America, EVs typically travel three to four miles (or more) per kWh (kilowatt hour) of electricity. If you drive 12,000 miles per year, you will need 3,000-4,000 kWh. Depending on where you live, you will need a 1.5kW-3kW photovoltaic (PV) system to generate that much power for your vehicle using about 150 to 300 square feet of space on the roof of your home.

According to SolarChargedDriving.org, for both vehicle and other home electricity needs, you will need about 7-10 kW of solar power in total on your roof. If your solar system is already in place but does not have enough panels for both home and vehicle charging needs, you may be able to buy a converter that can handle another “string;” micro inverter systems may be particularly good for this. Utility credits for the daytime solar power can offset the cost of charging the car at night.

______

______

Moral of the story:

_

-1. Electric vehicles are vehicles that use electricity as “fuel” for propulsion by using one or more electric motors. Commonly, the term EV is used to refer to an electric car. Electric car is a vehicle that runs fully (battery EV) or partially (plug-in hybrid EV) on electricity. EVs store electricity in an energy storage device, such as a battery. EVs have limited energy storage capacity, which must be replenished by plugging into an electrical source. Most of the benefits of EVs over conventional cars like reduced fuel cost, reduced maintenance cost, reduced air pollution, reduced greenhouse gases, enhanced energy security and improved driving experience are credited predominantly to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and to lesser degree to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).

_

-2. Electric cars were among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late 19th and early 20th century, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of that time. Electric cars were popular until advances in internal combustion engine (ICE) cars (electric starters in particular), quicker refueling time, very low oil prices, and mass production of cheaper petrol (gasoline) and diesel vehicles led to a decline. Starting in 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in battery technology, desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve urban air quality, rapid urbanization, advances in renewable energy, and energy security & diversity. Electric cars accounted for 2.6% of global car sales and about 1% of global car stock in 2019.   

_

-3. Effective transportation systems are important for social prosperity, having significant impacts on economic growth, social development and the environment. Transportation is one of the largest sources of pollution and greenhouse gas emissions around the world. U.S. transportation sector GHG emissions surpassed all other individual sectors, accounting for 29% of the country’s total GHG emissions. Within the transportation sector, ~60% of GHG emissions came from light‐duty vehicles. The International Energy Agency suggests that around a third of cars would need to be electric in order to meet the Paris climate agreement of keeping average global temperature rise to within 2°C. 

_

-4. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) combine a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) with an electric propulsion system. The internal combustion engine does most of the work, while the electric motor assists the engine, with its main purpose being to increase the fuel economy. The basic principle with hybrid vehicles is that the different engines work better at different speeds; the electric motor is more efficient at producing torque, or turning power, and the combustion engine is better for maintaining high speed (better than typical electric motor). Switching from one to the other at the proper time while speeding up yields a win-win in terms of energy efficiency that translates into greater fuel efficiency. An HEV cannot plug in to off-board sources of electricity to charge the battery. Instead, the vehicle uses regenerative braking and the internal combustion engine to charge. Since ICE does most of the propulsion, HEV is not truly an electrical vehicle.

_

-5. A plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) has both a combustion engine and an electric motor. Each one is capable of powering the vehicle on its own. PHEVs generally have larger battery packs than hybrid electric vehicles. This makes it possible to drive moderate distances using just electricity (about 15 to 60-plus miles in current models), commonly referred to as the “electric range” of the vehicle. PHEV batteries can be charged by an outside electric power source, by the internal combustion engine, or through regenerative braking. Plug-in hybrids allow their owners to drive entirely on electricity on the days when they don’t exceed the vehicle’s all-electric range, yet have the combustion engine there when they need it. If for some reason the owner forgets to plug the vehicle in one day or drives to a destination that doesn’t have access to an electricity supply, it’s not an issue. Series plug-in hybrids use only the electric motor to drive the wheels. The internal combustion engine is used to generate electricity to charge battery which drives the motor. Vehicles of this type are often referred to as extended-range electric vehicles.

_  

-6. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) also called all-electric vehicles, are vehicles that use secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries, normally called storage batteries or traction batteries) as their only source of energy to power the engine (electric motor). BEVs have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. The capacity of the battery determines the EV’s range (how far it can go on a single charge of the battery). EV batteries are charged by plugging the vehicle in to an electric power source. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency categorizes all-electric vehicles as zero-emission vehicles because they produce no direct exhaust or tailpipe emissions. In fact, they don’t have tailpipe. If your electricity comes from renewable energy, your carbon footprint is far closer to zero at least when it comes to your transportation.

Remember, there is no internal combustion engine (ICE) in BEV as opposed to HEV and PHEV.

Remember, plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) includes BEV and PHEV.

Remember, EV generally means BEV unless specifically stated.   

_

-7. In fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), oxygen from air and hydrogen from the cylinders react in fuel cells to produce electricity. Only water is produced as by-product which is released in the environment. The Toyota Mirai uses batteries to power its motor and the fuel cell is used to charge the batteries. The batteries receive the power reproduced by regenerative braking as well. This combination provides more flexibility as the batteries do not need to be charged from grid, only the fuel for the fuel cell has to be replenished and refilling these vehicles takes the same amount of time required to fill a conventional vehicle at a gas pump. Using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation as 95% of hydrogen is still produced from fossil fuels which releases carbon dioxide. The hydrogen needed to move a FCEV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance. FCEVs have a long way to go before we see mass adoption.   

_

-8. When the electric motor is supplied with an electrical current in EV, it works as a drive. The direction of rotation of an electric drive motor is freely selectable. It can turn clockwise to move the vehicle forwards and counter-clockwise to reverse it. When the electric motor is driven mechanically due to kinetic energy of EV, it supplies electrical energy as an alternator i.e., regenerative braking. When breaking in a traditional car, the kinetic energy caused is lost – mainly in the form of heat as the brake pads of the car heat up due to friction of the brake pad on the brake disc. However, in an electric car the electric traction motor uses the vehicle’s momentum to recover energy that would otherwise be lost to the brake discs as heat. So, in regenerative braking an electric motor functions as an electric generator to slow car & recharge batteries. This helps EVs become even more efficient and can help extend their range. EVs can capture and reuse as much as 16 to 70% of the kinetic energy lost during the act of braking through regenerative braking. 

_

-9. Kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of energy equivalent to the energy used or transferred in one hour by one thousand watts of power, i.e., 3,600,000 joules. Electric car batteries are typically measured in kilowatt hours. It is a unit of energy describing a battery’s capacity and how much energy it has to provide to the car’s electric motors. The larger the number of kilowatt-hours, the bigger the battery, the longer a car’s range. 1 kilowatt hour is typically 3-4 miles of range in a BEV. One kWh is also one unit in your electricity bill. kWh divided by voltage gives you Ah (ampere hour) for a given battery.

_  

-10. Range is the distance you can travel on pure electric power before the battery requires a recharge. The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries used, and (as with all vehicles), the aerodynamics, weight and type of vehicle, performance requirements, driving behaviour, and the weather. A recent study found that when the outside temperature dips to 20°F and the vehicle’s heater is in use, an average EV’s range drops by 41 percent. The same study determined that when outside temperatures hit 95°F and air conditioning is in use, an EV’s range will drop by an average of 17 percent.

Range anxiety is a term used to describe the fear of running out of battery power while driving an EV. EV drivers are also concerned that the charger station may not be not operational when they arrive. This is charger anxiety. Range anxiety and charger anxiety are considered to be major barriers to large scale adoption of all-electric cars. For EV drivers, planning when and where the car will be charged is a constant part of ownership.    

_

-11. kWh mileage estimates the number of miles you get per kWh (e.g., 3.5 miles/kWh). It’s interesting to see the wide range of mileage you can get based on the size and weight of your car, where and how you drive it, and when you charge. All-electric vehicles can deliver transport at an energy cost of roughly 15 kilowatt hours (kWh) per 100km. That’s five times better than baseline fossil-fuel car, and significantly better than any hybrid cars. Remember, amount of energy contained in one gallon of gasoline is equivalent to be 33.7-kilowatt hours (kWh). The BEV mileage is better than that of an equivalent gas-powered car for following reasons: (1) When grid has a good amount of clean energy on it, which gives the EV “free” miles; (2) The fossil fuel is being burned in a relatively efficient power plant, rather than in a relatively inefficient gas engine; (3) Electric-drive motors are much more efficient than combustion engines and drivetrains. The efficiency of energy conversion from on-board storage to turning the wheels is nearly five times greater for electricity than gasoline, at approximately 76% and 16%, respectively; and (4) The electric car regenerates power from braking, which a traditional gas-powered car cannot do. (Hybrids also do this.)    

_

-12. A vehicle needs high torque at low speeds for acceleration, then demands less torque as cruising speed is approached. An electric motor develops maximum torque at low rpm, then torque declines with speed, mostly in step with a vehicle’s natural demand. Because the torque of an electric motor is a function of current, not rotational speed, electric vehicles have a high torque over a larger range of speeds during acceleration, as compared to an internal combustion engine. In contrast, an ICE develops very little torque at low rpm, and must accelerate through nearly three-quarters of its rpm band before it can deliver maximum torque. A multi-ratio transmission is therefore necessary in order to correctly match ICE output characteristics to the vehicle demand curve. Due to the more favorable output curve of the electric motor, an EV drivetrain usually does not require more than two gear ratios, and often needs only one. Electric cars can have gears, but they aren’t necessary to make the car run. Moreover, a reverse gear is unnecessary because the rotational direction of the motor itself can be reversed simply by reversing the electrical input polarity. These advantages lead to a far less complex and more efficient powertrain, at least on a mechanical level. Remember, the drivetrain gives power to the wheels while the powertrain is made up of the motor and the drivetrain.

Electric motors deliver power instantly, meaning, the process of building up torque through revving as in internal combustion engines is unnecessary. The maximum torque is available even at low rpm (i.e., when pulling away) and only drops once the motor reaches very high speeds. As a result, neither a manually operated transmission, nor an automatic transmission nor a clutch are required. EVs have much better torque than ICE vehicles, and therefore have better acceleration. A gearless or single gear design in average EVs eliminates the need for gear shifting, giving such vehicles both smoother acceleration and smoother braking. For a cheaper vehicle that largely gets driven in the city, one gear is fine. For a performance car, or one that is going to spend more time at higher speeds, it makes sense to find ways to get at least one more gear ratio.

_

-13. EVs with single gear transmission work very efficiently in urban areas with frequent start-stops as electric motor provides total torque from the start; and there is no stalling of motor and no idle running similar to ICE. Electric motors can be turned on and off with no delay or extra energy cost. In other words, you get better mileage with EVs in urban areas with heavy traffic.  

On the other hand, electric vehicles get worse mileage at non-stop faster speeds, largely due to the loss of regenerative braking. Another reason is single gear transmission. ICE with a 5-speed transmission can lower the RPM at a higher speed by using a transmission that allows for the gear ratio to change as the car is driven. At 80 mph a piston engine can be reduced to just 1500 or 2000 RPM while the EV with single gear transmission is spinning furiously and thus using more energy than at low speeds. While an EV will work at anywhere from 0 RPM to max motor speed, it will have lower power and/or less range at highway speeds if its single gear is optimized for city driving. So be aware that driving at higher speeds tends to drain an EV’s battery quicker than does stop-and-go driving around town. Also, quick acceleration and fast driving discharge the battery faster. Even aggressive braking hurts significantly, because it cheats the EV’s regenerative braking system of the chance to recapture some energy and recharge the battery.

_

-14. BEVs require high voltage to power the motor. Voltage levels of 200 to 800 V are needed to generate sufficient power to run the vehicle. An AC induction motor is actually a three-phase motor that has a speed feature of running at 240 volts with a 300 volt battery pack. When it comes to road performance, electric vehicles with AC motors can get a better grip at rougher terrains and run more smoothly. It also has more acceleration. In most cases, a DC motor will run between 96 to 192 volts. The DC permanent magnet motor utilizes rare-earth elements into its magnets, which makes it unique. DC installations tend to be simpler and less expensive, and it does not need an additional electricity, unlike the AC induction motor. More car companies are beginning to switch from AC induction motors to DC permanent magnet motors because it has a size and weight advantage that is more significant as automobiles are becoming relatively smaller.

The power requirement of the motor depends upon the weight of the vehicle along with its payload, the speed-range at which the vehicle has to be driven, gradeability that it has to handle and the acceleration that the vehicle needs. Electric motors can provide high power to weight ratios, and batteries can be designed to supply the large currents to support these motors. Although some electric vehicles have very small motors, 15 kW (20 hp) or less and therefore have modest acceleration, many electric cars have large motors and brisk acceleration. The Nissan Leaf is powered by DC motor with 80 kW (107 hp) power and 280 N⋅m (207 ft⋅lb) torque. The 2012 Tesla Model S Performance model has a three-phase AC induction motor with 416 hp (310 kW) power and 443 ft⋅lb (601 N⋅m) torque. 

_

-15. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories; diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%; electric vehicles have efficiencies of 69-72%, when counted against stored chemical energy, or around 59-62%, when counted against required energy to recharge. i.e., the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels. An electric motor typically is between 85% and 90% efficient. That means it converts that percentage of the electricity provided to it into useful work. The difference between the efficiency of the motor and the overall efficiency of an electric car is accounted for losses attributed to charging and discharging the battery, for some charging (for some cars), and converting AC to DC current and back again. Electric vehicles also increase a vehicle’s efficiency by using regenerative braking technology to recover energy that would otherwise have been lost.

When comparing the efficiencies of an electric vehicle to a gasoline vehicle, the efficiency of the source of generating the electric energy must be included in the comparison. A more comprehensive comparison of the various vehicle types from energy efficiency perspective must be a “well-to-wheels” comparison, which encompasses the fuel production and delivery stages as well as the fuel use stage.  When the entire energy chain is considered, studies generally conclude that battery electric cars are roughly 10% – 30% more energy efficient than conventional gasoline cars. In the end, it is not energy efficiency per se that will serve as the basis for comparing vehicles, but rather performance in terms of fueling costs and environmental impacts, among other measures.  

_

-16. The most common battery type in modern electric vehicles are lithium-ion and lithium polymer, because of their high energy density compared to their weight. Unlike earlier battery chemistries, notably nickel-cadmium, lithium-ion batteries can be discharged and recharged daily and at any state of charge. The Li-ion batteries have a good charge cycle rate (meaning they are capable of being recharged many times), high energy density, high power-to-weight ratio, high energy efficiency, high cell voltage, and a low self-discharge rate (at only 5 percent per month). Compared to the lead-acid batteries, the Li-Ion is one-third of the weight, is three times more powerful, and has three times the cycle life. Currently, most manufacturers are offering 8-year/100,000-mile warranties for their batteries although most car warranties are around three years and 60,000 miles. On average, EV batteries can be expected to lose about 2.3% of range every year due to natural aging. For a 200-mile range EV, that’s just 4 miles a year; at that rate most batteries will outlast the useable life of their vehicles.

_

-17. In comparing EV with gasoline vehicles, all the downsides for EV arise from the battery. Purchase price, range, charging time, lifetime, and safety are all battery-driven handicaps. The battery is the key to electric transportation, the focal point for progress, and the open opportunity to determine the future of electric vehicles. Battery innovation is needed to achieve lower purchase price, faster charging, longer range, extended lifetime, and greater safety.

_

-18. EVs are forecast to cost the same or less than a comparable gasoline-powered vehicle when the price of battery packs falls to $100 per kWh. That would help trigger mass adoption.  

_

-19. Battery management system (BMS) of EVs measure three vital parameters of the battery which are the Voltage, Current and Temperature of the cell. It constantly compares these values with safety limits and disconnects the load if they exceed the threshold values. Apart from safety purpose, the BMS is also used for some computational purpose, like measuring the SOC and SOH of a battery.

Thermal management system (TMS) is a part of BMS. Thermal management of advanced battery systems is critical to the success of EVs because extreme temperatures can affect the performance, reliability, safety, and durability of batteries. The ideal temperature for using lithium-ion batteries is in the range between 15 to 35 degree Celsius. The cell’s cycle life starts to degrade rapidly on anything higher than this. In electric cars, discharging the battery generates heat; the more rapidly you discharge a battery, the more heat it generates. Because batteries are only manufactured to work between certain temperature extremes, they will stop working if there is no cooling system to keep it in a working range. Cooling systems are able to keep the battery pack in the temperature range of about 20-40 degrees Celsius, as well as keep the temperature difference within the battery pack to a minimum (no more than 5 degrees Celsius). Potential thermal stability issues, such as capacity degradation, thermal runaway, and fire explosion, could occur if the battery overheats or if there is non-uniform temperature distribution in the battery pack.

A recent study revealed that at 15 degree Celsius, a lithium-ion ferrous phosphate cell lost ~7 % capacity after 2,628 cycles while at 45 degree Celsius, it lost 22 % capacity after only 1,376 cycles. While cold temperatures temporarily decrease range and performance, they don’t threaten battery life in the same way that high temperatures do. Operation at high temperatures can accelerate the speed of the battery degradation. Remember, high temperature reduces the battery’s life span, while low temperature decreases a battery’s performance.  Thermal management system of most EVs contain battery heater and cooler to keep the battery within the ideal temperature range to prevent seasonal decrease in performance and prevent overheating due to discharging battery and hot weather. 

_

-20. One of the worst things you can do to a Lithium-ion battery is to run it down to 0% and let it sit empty without recharging it. Eventually the battery capacity will be trashed, and a new battery will be required to get the car in working order again. The battery reserve (buffer) is a way of preventing careless users from doing just that. Lithium-ion batteries don’t like to be stored at 100% or 0% for long periods of time because being at one extreme or the other puts excess strain on the battery. Keeping EV battery charged between 20% to 80%, minimizing fast charging, and sticking to temperatures range is the best way to extend the lifespan of your EV battery.  

_

-21. Charging equipment for PEVs is classified by the rate at which the batteries are charged. The charge time for an EV can range from 30 minutes to 12 hours depending on the size of the battery and speed of the charger. The average charging time takes around 8 hours from zero to full battery with a 7 kW charging point. Most PEVs on the roads today are not capable of charging at rates higher than 50 kW. Home charging can be done via the installation of a home charging point where you park your electric car or an EVSE supply cable for a 3-pin plug socket that is provided by the carmaker. The home charging point is faster and has built-in safety features. It is found that over 80% of the electric car users charge their EVs overnight at home or at work.

_

-22. Regular DC fast-charging affects the lifespan of lithium-ion batteries adversely because of increase in the internal resistance of the batteries due to lithium plating which involves lithium depositing in spikes on the anode surface instead of being smoothly inserted into the carbon anodes. This in turn results in heat generation, cracks and leaks, increased risk of fire or explosion and capacity loss.     

_

-23. The production of electric vehicles necessitates the use of critical metals, including so-called rare earth elements (REE).  EV batteries are predominantly Lithium-ion batteries which use Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, and Graphite.  Most electric vehicles use Neodymium Iron Boron permanent magnets (NdFeB), which are essential to produce high-performance electric motors. Such magnets contain Neodymium (Nd), Praseodymium (Pr), and Dysprosium (Dy) that are REE. Critical metals and rare earth minerals will not be constrained in the coming decades and won’t stop the EV transition. Once battery powered vehicle become more widespread, we can expect a dedicated recycling industry to emerge, enabling the re-use of critical metals such as lithium and cobalt.

_

-24. All-electric vehicles have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems onboard last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. ICEs are complex, with many moving parts and also require more oils and lubricants. They require regular maintenance and servicing. Electric cars, by contrast, are very simple in design with only a few moving components. This means there is much less which can go wrong, and servicing and maintenance costs will be much lower. An EV may save an average driver about 46% in annual maintenance costs, according to one federal government study.

According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales. One in six Cadillac dealers decided to close rather than follow the brand’s recommendations and start selling electric cars. Simply put, when you take maintenance out of the equation, there’s not much in it for dealers.    

_

-25. EVs consume tires at a much higher rate than internal combustion vehicles. They’re heavier and create near-instant torque off the line. EV customers are coming back for tire replacements 30% more frequently than traditional internal combustion vehicle owners. While EVs have less of a need to visit a service shop, they’ll need tire replacement more often.

_

-26. Vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users and not only the visually-impaired. These quiet electric vehicles are more likely to collide with pedestrians than cars with a regular combustion engine. Many electric car manufacturers have installed a noise-making device that operates when the car is running at slow speeds. This lets pedestrians know that a car is around. At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make more audible noise.

_

-27. Electric vehicles are more expensive to purchase than their petrol and diesel equivalents, especially brand new. This may balance out through lower operating costs over time. When total ownership cost is considered—including such factors as purchase price, fueling costs, and maintenance expenses—EVs come out ahead over traditional car, especially in more affordable segments.     

_

-28. The cost of electricity per kilometer for EV is much lower than that of gasoline: a BEV costs about 2 to 3 ¢/km (at 13 ¢/kWh), compared to a typical 4-cylinder gasoline vehicle at 7 to 8 ¢/km (at $1.00/L). Only a substantial drop in the cost of gasoline could give gas-powered cars anywhere near such a low cost per kilometer. Consumers with a home solar system can really lower or even eliminate their energy costs. The investment in solar panels pays off faster when the solar power is not only replacing grid electricity, but replacing much more expensive gasoline.  

The 2020 Volkswagen e-Golf (list price around $31,895–$38,895) manages an average (city and highway combined) 30 kWh (kilowatt hours) per 100 miles (equivalent to 122 mpg) for an annual fuel cost of $600 per year, where a 2020 gasoline version of the same car (list price $23,195–$23,995) comes in at just 29 mpg for an annual fuel cost of $1050 per year.  

_

-29. A study of electric cars currently on sale has shown that drivers who want to ‘go green’ will have to pay 45 per cent more for insurance than the average motorist. It means the rising number of drivers buying electric cars could see any potential savings, such as lower ‘fuel’ bills, wiped out by costly insurance cover. Insurers ascribe increased electric car premiums to the cars’ higher purchase price, the need for specialist equipment and repairs, and a lack of data on driver behaviour. As more drivers plug in to electric, experts predict that the insurance market will undergo a degree of correction.    

_

-30. BEVs have several advantages over ICE vehicles. These include improved air quality, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, reduce noise pollution, home charging, lower operating and maintenance costs, economic growth, grid resilience and less dependent on imported oil. Nonetheless, combustion-engine vehicles still dominate new car registrations. Plug-in passenger cars still represented less than 1% of the world’s car fleet in use. The reasons for the slow growth in electric cars include relatively low gasoline prices, higher energy density of gasoline, convenience of nearby gas station, 3 minutes to fill up gas tank, improved economy of conventional engines, and the continued barriers to entry for electric vehicles.

Limited driving range, high purchase cost, battery issues, a spotty charging infrastructure and overall lack of knowledge are the main barriers for battery electric vehicles (BEVs). The mass acceptance of EVs to a large extent is reliant on consumers’ perception of EVs. Consumers want the most durable, cost-competitive solution that can move them from point A to point B. The internal combustion engine isn’t perfect but consumers continue to stick with what they know and have come to rely on. Consumers make decisions based on convenience and the overall economics of owning a car — and right now a traditional vehicle still comes out on top for the vast majority of people. The single biggest barrier to a driver choosing an electric car is high purchase cost.     

_

-31. Due to a handful of highly publicized electric vehicle crashes that resulted in fires, some people believe EVs are a fire hazard. However, every day there are countless vehicle fires from crashes involving gas cars, but few make the news since it’s so common. In fact, gasoline has highly flammable properties and the potential for a fire hazard. The National Fire Protection Association reports that a driver is 5 times more likely to experience a fire in a conventional gas-powered car than in an electric car.     

_

-32. The US Department of Labor estimates that electric vehicle manufacturing alone could result in a net employment gain of up to 350,000 US jobs by 2030. Electromobility could create over 200,000 net additional jobs by 2030 in Europe. 

_

-33. Vehicle emissions can be divided into two general categories: air pollutants, which contribute to smog, haze, and health problems; and greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide and methane which contribute to global warming. Both categories of emissions can be evaluated on a direct basis (tailpipe emission), well-to-wheel basis and life cycle analysis (LCA) basis.

While BEVs have no emissions from tailpipe during driving (they don’t have tailpipe), the electricity they consume can be produced from fossil fuels that emit air pollutants and CO2. Therefore, emissions are considered on a well-to-wheel basis in comparing their CO2 emissions to conventional vehicles. Well-to-wheel emissions depend on the efficiency of the EV and the fuel mix of electricity generation, which differs greatly across countries. There are two main reason why EV-related emissions have become lower in many parts of the world. Electricity generation has been getting cleaner, as coal-fired generation has declined while lower-carbon alternatives have increased. In addition, electric cars are becoming more efficient. Driving the average BEV produces global warming emission equal to a gasoline vehicle that gets 88 miles per gallon (mpg) fuel economy. That’s significantly better than the most efficient gasoline car (58 mpg) and far cleaner than the average new gasoline car (31 mpg) or truck (21 mpg) sold in the US.  

A life cycle analysis of emissions considers three phases: the manufacturing phase (also known as cradle-to-gate), the use phase (well-to-wheel) and the recycling phase (grave-to-cradle). Life cycle analysis (LCA) estimate of CO2 emission of battery electric vehicle is already close to three times better than an equivalent conventional car today. Battery electric cars outperform diesel and petrol cars in all scenarios, even on carbon intensive grids such as Poland (coal-fired power plants) where they are about 30% better than conventional cars. In the best-case scenario (a BEV running on clean electricity with a battery produced with clean electricity), BEVs are already about five times cleaner than conventional equivalents. Driving average BEV is responsible for fewer global warming emissions than average new gasoline car anywhere no matter the energy mix of electricity grid. There is growing evidence that the myths fed by the oil companies were false: electric vehicles are cleaner regardless of the origin of the electricity they consume. However, BEVs aren’t 100% clean unless they are powered fully by renewable energy resources.

Electric cars – powered with the average electricity – repay their “carbon debt” from the production of the battery after slightly more than a year and save more than 30 tons of CO2 over their lifetime compared to a conventional equivalent. Electric vehicles that do high mileages (e.g., shared vehicles, taxis or Uber-like services) save up to 85 tons of CO2 over their lifetime (compared to diesel vehicle).     

_

-34. When coal power plants supply the majority of the power in a given area (e.g., India, Poland, China), electric vehicles may emit more air pollutants nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide as compared to ICE vehicles. However, the difference in emissions of air pollutants from the road transport sector and electricity generation cannot be compared directly in terms of their respective impacts on human health. Their impact depends to a large degree on the location, intensity and type of emission sources. Emissions from road transport occur at ground level and generally in areas where people live and work, such as in cities and towns, so much of the population is exposed to them. In contrast, power stations are generally outside cities, in less populated areas. As a result of this lower exposure, a shift of emissions from the road transport sector to the power generation sector can therefore be beneficial for health. Therefore, zero tailpipe emission of BEV represents the greatest urban health benefit of BEVs as those emissions are displaced away from the areas where people live closest to vehicle traffic. By reducing air pollution, a growing fleet of BEVs in the nation could save thousands of lives.    

_  

-35. The environment, health, national security and economic development benefits of BEVs are societal benefits which are dispersed throughout society and not currently captured and realized directly by any single party. The BEV owner creates this value to society by choosing and driving a BEV, but does not receive compensation for this value. Policymakers should take note of the societal benefits of BEVs and continue supporting BEVs by providing various incentives to BEV owners and BEV manufacturers.

_

-36. Electric vehicles need to be charged from the grid, which may create as much as a 9.5% increase in electricity demand by 2050 in EU-28 when 80 % of vehicles will be EVs. The “vast majority” of electric vehicle charging will occur at night, so electricity demand from vehicle charging will surge at midnight. Such an instantaneous spike in electricity demand may compromise grid reliability and necessitate investment in grid upgrades, particularly in urban areas.

Most electric vehicles charging at home on a 240-volt level 2 charger will draw about 7,200 watts or less. For comparison, a typical household fan/TV uses 50, washing machine 500, and air conditioner 1500 watts. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. When you simultaneously fast charge five typical EVs in 15 minutes, you can increase the peak power delivered by the grid to more than 1 MW. The grid should deliver this power for 15 minutes. EVs can cause serious problems in the power system including voltage instability, harmonics, and voltage sag, but these shortcomings may be short-lived if smart grid technologies are employed.          

_

-37. The unification of transportation with electricity creates new horizons of opportunity for the grid as well. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) EV charging is a system that has a bi-directional electrical energy flow between plug-in EVs and the power grid. V2G technology enables EVs to store unused power and discharge it to the grid. Electric vehicles can also be used for energy arbitrage. By storing energy purchased during off-peak times and selling it back to the grid or using it to power home energy use (behind-the-meter) during peak load, EV owners or operators can save money, or even make money by storing energy.

_

-38. Electric transportation offers ideal opportunities for the broader introduction of renewables to the transport sector. Large scale adoption of electric mobility will spur renewable energy growth. As energy consuming technologies, electric vehicles create new demand for electricity that can be supplied by renewables. In addition to the benefits such as reducing CO2 emissions and air pollution, electric mobility also creates significant efficiency gains and could emerge as an important source of storage for variable sources of renewable electricity. This is extremely useful for enhancing the share of renewable energy which is not available at a steady rate but is dependent on weather conditions to a large extent. Electric vehicles create a paradigm shift for both the transport and power sectors, and could support variable renewable power growth through different charging schemes such as time-variable “smart charging” and vehicle to grid (V2G) electricity supply.

_

-39. Energy security comes from less dependence on imported oil, the ability to use multiple energy sources via electric pathways and on-vehicle storage, and a net reduction in fuel usage. Automobiles rely almost exclusively on liquid fossil fuels as the on-vehicle storage medium, while most other energy sources can be, and are already, used as part of the electric grid. So EVs can use non-petroleum energy sources for transportation. If electric energy can be effectively stored and integrated to propel automobiles, the full range of energy sources could be tapped for future automotive needs.   

_____

Dr. Rajiv Desai. MD.

January 27, 2021 

_____

Postscript:

The bottom line is that using electricity instead of gasoline is cheaper, greener and healthier for most people.     

______